(A) Types of plants found in the home gardens and (B) reasons for choosing the fruit trees in the garden (multiple option choices were applicable for B).
Distribution of the participants’ responses to the question “what was considered when selecting plants your garden arrangement?” (multiple option choices were applicable).
(A) Design principles, (B) design elements, and (C) design approaches that participants consider during landscaping their home gardens.
Percentage of minor Mediterranean fruit trees in residential gardens.
(A) Contribution of the variables to the first two principal components and (B) PCA-Biplot of the plant species and years of existence.
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This study aims to explore the role of minor Mediterranean fruit trees in shaping sustainable residential landscapes by examining their presence, selection criteria, and long-term trends in home gardens. Data were collected from 400 homeowners through structured surveys to analyze their preferences, motivations, and influences in garden planning. Findings reveal that olive (60.3%) and pomegranate (50.0%) trees are the most prevalent fruit species, reflecting their cultural and ecological resilience. In contrast, species like hawthorn and jujube are less common, suggesting a shift in gardening trends. Older gardens (40+ years) tend to have greater biodiversity, whereas newer gardens prioritize easier-to-maintain and aesthetically appealing species. Regarding garden design, aesthetic considerations (46.3%) and balance (40.8%) were the most important principles, while traditional approaches (47.5%) dominated landscape preferences. Principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted that apricot, loquat, and peach contribute most to garden variability, while olives remain stable across all timeframes. Additionally, homeownership duration strongly influences plant selection, with long-term homeowners maintaining diverse and traditional fruit tree compositions. Overall, this study underscores a gradual shift from traditional Mediterranean fruit trees to monotonous, low-maintenance gardens, emphasizing the need for conservation efforts to preserve the rich horticultural heritage of the region. Future research could explore climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable urban gardening strategies.
The Mediterranean region is characterized by its rich diversity of globally prized minor fruits, including pomegranate (Punica granatum), almond (Prunus dulcis), carob (Ceratonia siliqua), fig (Ficus carica), cactus (Opuntia spp.), olive (Olea europaea), jujube (Ziziphus jujuba), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), mulberry (Morus spp.), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), peach (Prunus persica), plum (Prunus domestica), persimmon (Diospyros kaki), and berries (Rubus spp.) (Meikle 1985; Nieto Feliner et al. 2023; Tzanopoulos et al. 2005). The Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters, which allows for high plant diversity and the development of drought-resistant plant species (Arslantürk and Ketenoğlu 2008; Aurelle et al. 2022; Tzanopoulos et al. 2005). While climate change and urbanization pressure threaten the preservation of traditional vegetation in the Mediterranean region, sustainable landscape practices and the promotion of native species are critical to maintaining ecological balance. However, rapid urbanization (Zhou et al. 2024), modernization, and intensification (Biasi et al. 2012) have led to significant changes in land use and a decline in environmental and biological diversity leading to the degradation of certain habitat patches.
The complex interactions between ecosystems and societies have important influence on the landscapes within the Mediterranean region (Sirami et al. 2010). The preference for minor Mediterranean fruit (MMF) trees is important for cultural, economic, and traditional sustainability. The rural landscape concept is composed of a mixture of both natural and human-made designs that differ in size and configuration (Santoro 2024). The phrase “home/residential garden” describes the customary land use practices surrounding a dwelling where a variety of plant species are produced and consumed by homeowners (Mekonen et al. 2015). In the 20th century, garden design evolved into an approach that emphasized functionality and simplicity under the influence of modernist architecture. During this period, architects, especially Frank Lloyd Wright, designed buildings in harmony with the natural environment, creating a seamless relationship between interior and exterior spaces (Bassas et al. 2020). In the 21st century, sustainability, biodiversity, conservation, and preservation of cultural heritage have become important elements in garden design (Swensen et al. 2022). Today, the integration of traditional horticultural practices into modern urban spaces is being encouraged for both environmental and social benefits. During the COVID-19 pandemic, which has limited domestic and international travel and trade (including limitations in laborer movement), home gardens have become increasingly important for food security (Vinceti et al. 2022). Nevertheless, the continued cultural importance of MMFs, particularly in the domestic home gardens of the Mediterranean region, has added to their ongoing importance in providing food for families.
Residential gardens, both historically and currently, are unique locations that enable people to interact with nature in addition to being places to dwell (Galhena et al. 2013). Fruit trees grown in these special spaces designed in connection with the natural environment have an important place both economically and culturally (Yinebeb et al. 2022). The structure and composition of home gardens are dynamic, which are influenced by cultural background and socioeconomic status of the society (Kehlenbeck et al. 2007). Unlike many other countries and cities, Northern Cyprus is located in the Mediterranean region, which has managed to preserve the garden housing culture to a great extent. Differing from densely populated and apartment-dominated cities such as Istanbul, London, Paris, or Tokyo, Northern Cyprus is able to maintain a green lifestyle. This is striking not only in terms of physical space preferences but also in terms of the plants and trees grown in these spaces. The Mediterranean landscape has evolved through long and complex cultural and historical processes, with traditional agro-forestry systems like the “Mediterranean garden” playing a crucial role in maintaining ecological and cultural diversity (Barbera and Cullotta 2016).
The suitability of MMF trees to the Mediterranean climate have caused these trees to protect their place in home gardens in Northern Cyprus until today. However, home gardens in Northern Cyprus, likewise the rest of the world, are currently threatened by a number of factors, including mostly the decline in traditional gardening interest and knowledge on the medicinal applications of fruits and herbs (Gökçebağ and Özden 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate the role of MMF trees in shaping sustainable landscaping within residential gardens in Northern Cyprus, with a focus on their presence, selection criteria, and long-term trends in residential gardens. Ultimately, the findings would offer guidance on incorporating MMF trees into sustainable residential landscapes and ensure their conservation for future generations.
This study was conducted in Northern Cyprus, which is characterized by its Mediterranean climate. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Basin (Meikle 1985). The Troodos Mountains, the Five Fingers Mountain range, and the Mesoarial Plain, which divides the two upland regions, make up its three geomorphological zones, which span an area of 9251 km2. The flora of Cyprus is incredibly varied. Cyprus is home to ∼1649 native plant taxa, where 276 introduced taxa exist in the wild as of Jan 2025 (Hand et al. 2025). Cypriot house gardens, which vary in size, form, and plant species composition, can be found in a variety of locations in rural areas. For households, they are primarily storing extra fruits, vegetables, and herbs (Gökçebağ and Özden 2017). The region’s horticultural heritage is impacted by centuries of agricultural practices, and shaped by environmental conditions and socio-cultural traditions. According to 2023 statistics, there were about 37,400 detached houses in Northern Cyprus. Approximately half of these houses were estimated to have gardens or space for gardens. The sample size of this study was calculated by following Cochran’s formula with 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. The required sample size was then determined as 384 participants (Cochran 1991). To account for potential errors or incomplete responses, the sample size was increased to 400.
Data of the current study were collected using a questionnaire method. Random sampling method was used to select participants, which helped to ensure diversity in terms of location, garden size, and tree selection preferences. The main criterion for the selection of the participants was to have a garden at their house. The questionnaire consisted of questions about the demographic information of the participants, the types of MMF trees they grow in their gardens, and the reasons for preferring these trees.
Before conducting the survey, ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the European University of Lefke. A brief introduction statement outlining the purpose of the study and ensuring transparency was provided at the beginning of the survey. Moreover, participants were shown simple pre-prepared drawings about design principles. Users are consciously and/or unconsciously influenced by design principles when selecting plants for home gardens. Especially the visual and functional expectations of users (Kahveci 2023) play an important role in plant selection. Therefore, users consciously and/or unconsciously act in accordance with visual perception principles such as contrast, balance, and hierarchy (Erdoğan 2024). Because the survey participants are not professional designers and may not possess a comprehensive understanding of design principles, it was aimed to show some simple pre-prepared drawings to help them familiarize themselves with the design principles. It also helped the participants to understand that all information would be kept private and used only for research reasons. In person, participants were asked if they would be interested in taking part in the study. They only included those who willingly consented. No participants were excluded post-data collection, as all responses met the inclusion criteria defined by the study.
Participants were first asked to answer some demographic questions (gender, age range, marital status, and education level) and then durations of residence, designers of the gardens, sources of the plants, reasons for plant preference, types of plants, design principles, design elements, and design approaches. Finally, a long list of MMFs was given to the participants and they were asked to indicate whether they have these plants in their gardens or not.
The initial data processing was carried out in Microsoft Excel (Redmond, WA, USA), where raw data were first compiled before being imported into SPSS 22.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) for further analysis. Then, frequency distributions and percentage values were calculated for the demographic data and rest. The analyzed data were then transferred back to Microsoft Excel for the creation of visual representations. In addition, the R software was used to perform PCA-Biplot analysis for dissecting the correlation between the fruit species, as well as their interactions with the years of planting.
The socio-demographic profile of the 400 participants provided valuable insights into the composition of the study sample. The results are presented in Table 1. According to the frequency distributions, the sample consists of 60.25% female and 39.75% male participants. The predominance of female respondents could be linked with the women’s tradition involvement in home aesthetics, plant care, or sustainable lifestyle choices. Moreover, the largest age group was determined as 35 to 49 years old (54.00%), which was followed by 25 to 34 years old (17.75%) and 50 to 64 years old (14.00%). This suggests that middle-aged homeowners are the primary contributors to the study, which aligns with the life stage where people are more likely to own property and invest in home gardens. Na et al. (2017) predicted that cultural differences in cognition could diverge with aging (i.e., cultural differences in cognition could be larger among older adults than among younger adults). Therefore, the presence of participants older than 64 years (12.50%) is also an important result for the present study, which made it possible to the understand the cultural significance of the MMFs in gardening which also supports the Na et al. (2017) approaches. The results also showed that 62.5% of respondents are married, reflecting a high proportion of family-oriented homeowners. Married individuals may prioritize home gardens for family recreation, children’s outdoor activities, and/or food production for consumption. The results also showed that the educational background of participants is skewed toward higher education (73% having at least an undergraduate degree). This shows that awareness of environmental sustainability and landscape aesthetics may be influenced by educational background.
The way participants obtained their homes plays a significant role in garden structure and plant selection. Users may avoid making changes in the gardens of inherited houses according to their actual perceptions. For this reason, the characteristics of home ownership and designers of the gardens were analyzed and the results are presented in Table 2. According to the results obtained, ∼42.25% of participants purchased their homes, making this the largest group. These homeowners may have actively chosen their properties based on garden space availability or had the flexibility to modify the gardens. Nearly 30.75% of the participants built their homes themselves, meaning they had full control over the house and garden design. The rest (27%) inherited their homes, indicating that a significant portion of the sample lives in family properties. These gardens might preserve traditional plant species, layouts, and cultural gardening practices, as they have been passed down through generations. In this context, the answers obtained in response to another question used in the research were very useful in the evaluation of the results. Namely, the responsibility of garden design was studied in this research. The results showed that the vast majority of the participants (61.75%) designed their gardens themselves (the participant or his/her partner). This suggests that many homeowners value self-expression when designing their gardens rather than relying on professional input. Therefore, only 9.25% of the gardens were found to be designed by a landscape architect or consultant. Traditional gardens remain unchanged (14%) and are the indicators of historical sustainability of the home landscapes. However, this result also shows that the users who participated in the research mostly changed their home gardens or designed them from scratch. These results helped to identify cultural changes, which was an important objective of the research.
Table 3 provides insights into how long participants have lived in their homes and the age distribution of MMF trees on their properties. These two factors are interconnected, as longer residence durations may influence the establishment, maintenance, and preservation of fruit trees. According to the results obtained, most of the participants (59.75%) have been living on their property for more than 11 years, indicating a long-term residency. The rest (40.25%) have been living on the property for 10 years or less, meaning that a significant number of participants have recently moved or purchased their homes, which may affect how they perceive and maintain their gardens. The results about the ages of the trees were also noted to be in agreement with the living durations, in which ∼50% are less than 10 years old, which suggests recent planting efforts in relatively new gardens. With only 7.25% of MMFs aged more than 40 years, there is a decline in older tree populations, which may be due to garden re-design or climate-related factors. In connection with these results, conserving the Mediterranean fruit tree species in the region and documenting traditional minors is necessary.
Although this study investigated the change in the status of MMFs, the presence of other plant species in home gardens was also analyzed through the questionnaire (see Fig. 1). Results suggested that fruit trees (92%) are likely one of the dominant plant types, as they provide both economic and nutritional value, aligning with traditional Mediterranean horticultural practices. Second, the ornamental plants (69%) were found to be widely present at the home gardens, contributing to aesthetic appeal and biodiversity. Homeowners may select them based on climate adaptability and personal preferences. The diversity of plant types in home gardens suggests a multifunctional approach to gardening. Figure 1B identifies the motivations behind homeowners’ choices in planting specific fruit trees. The findings indicate that the primary factor influencing the choice of plant species is the homeowners’ own knowledge (55.25%). The second important reason for the selection of the plant species was noted to be the Mediterranean culture (42.25%). To better understand the reasons behind the selection of the plant species, another question was used in the surveys and the participants’ considerations were evaluated (Fig. 2). Participants could choose multiple factors, allowing understanding of the relative importance of various criteria in plant selection.
Citation: HortScience 60, 5; 10.21273/HORTSCI18507-25
Citation: HortScience 60, 5; 10.21273/HORTSCI18507-25
These results showed that almost half of the participants prioritize the visual appeal of plants (aesthetic characteristics: 46.25%), whereas sensory attributes such as odor and texture play a moderate role (29.00%) in plant selection. A significant portion of respondents (36%) considered whether the plants were suitable for the local climate and environmental conditions, showing a level of awareness regarding sustainability and adaptability. Low maintenance requirements of the species were selected by 25% of participants, indicating a preference for practical, easy-to-care for gardens. Additionally, the importance given to functionality (27.00%) and continuity (38.25%) suggests that many participants value long-term sustainability and year-round plant interest. On the other hand, that only 13.25% of respondents prioritized exotic species suggests a preference for native or locally adapted plants. In addition, availability in the market was not a strong determinant (only 9.25%), meaning participants may be selecting plants based on other considerations rather than convenience. To sum up, according to the results obtained, garden plant selection is primarily driven by aesthetics, environmental suitability, and seasonal continuity, rather than structured planning or professional landscaping principles.
Design principles guide designers in organizing elements for a visually pleasing landscape. Users are consciously and/or unconsciously influenced by design principles, particularly in plant selection and their positioning within the garden (Erdoğan 2024; Kahveci 2023). A harmonious composition can be achieved through the principles of proportion, order, harmony, contrast, balance, emphasis, repetition, and unity (Hansen 2010; Sarı and Karaşah 2018). All of the principles are related, and applying one principle helps achieve the others (Hansen 2010). Design considerations of participants when landscaping their home gardens were analyzed and the results are presented in Fig. 3. According to the results obtained, balance (40.75%) and harmony-contrast (32.75%) are the most frequently applied principles in home garden landscaping (Fig. 3A). This suggests that many homeowners aim for a visually appealing and well-structured garden, integrating contrasting elements harmoniously. Moreover, proportion (22.00%), unity (18.75%), and emphasis-focus (23.00%) were considered by fewer participants, indicating that garden planning is often informal and not strictly guided by these aesthetic principles. Besides, sovereignty (6.75%) and koram-hierarchy (17.00%) were the least applied, suggesting that participants do not prioritize structured dominance or hierarchical organization in their garden designs. When analyzing the design elements (Fig. 3B), it was noted that the color (51.75%) is the most frequently considered design element, followed by measure/proportion (45.25%) and texture (43.00%), indicating that homeowners prioritize the visual diversity of their gardens. Form (38.75%) is considered to a lesser extent, whereas the line (12.75%) is the least considered element. The design approaches of the participants were also analyzed in the present study and traditional design (47.50%) was found to be the most common approach (Fig. 3C), indicating that many homeowners adhere to long-standing gardening customs and styles. Originality of design (42%) was also noted as significant, suggesting that although tradition is important, a notable portion of homeowners still value creativity and personal expression.
Citation: HortScience 60, 5; 10.21273/HORTSCI18507-25
The distribution of MMF trees in residential gardens is given in Fig. 4. According to the results obtained, olive trees (60.25%) are the most prevalent, reinforcing their deep-rooted cultural, economic, and agricultural significance in Mediterranean regions. Olives are known to require minimal water and are long-lived, making them ideal for residential gardens. The second abundant tree species in the residential gardens was found to be pomegranate trees (50%). This tree is also highly popular, likely due to their symbolic, medicinal, and nutritional value in Mediterranean cultures. Mulberry (46.00%), fig (44.25%), and loquat trees (44.00%) are also common, reflecting their traditional use in both culinary and shade-providing functions. According to the results obtained, stone fruit trees (plum, peach, and apricot) appear in a fair number of gardens, suggesting a preference for summer fruits, but possibly requiring more care and maintenance compared with olives or figs. Jujube and prickly pear are drought-resistant species, which explains their presence in Mediterranean gardens where water conservation is crucial. Hawthorn and carob trees were less favored, whereas the persimmon and blackberries are also limited in the residential gardens.
Citation: HortScience 60, 5; 10.21273/HORTSCI18507-25
According to the results obtained, apricot, loquat, peach, mulberry, pomegranate, plum, and persimmon have the highest contributions to Dim-1, indicating that these species play a major role in defining the overall variability in the dataset (Fig. 5A). Olive has the lowest contribution to Dim-1, suggesting that it is relatively stable across different gardens and time frames. On the other hand, hawthorn, olive, jujube, pomegranate, and carob have the highest contributions to Dim-2. Hawthorn and jujube are more variable, meaning their presence in gardens might be influenced by specific historical, ecological, or aesthetic preferences. Fruit trees like apricot, loquat, peach, and mulberry are key differentiators among gardens, likely because they are less common and their presence is influenced by other factors.
Citation: HortScience 60, 5; 10.21273/HORTSCI18507-25
The PCA-Biplot (Fig. 5B) visually represents how different fruit tree species correlate with the duration they have existed in gardens. Therefore, it can be concluded from the results that the olive, pomegranate, fig, almond, and mulberry are positioned centrally, indicating that they are commonly found regardless of homeownership duration. Species like apricot, loquat, and peach are more spread out, meaning their presence is more variable and influenced by time factors. Hawthorn and jujube are positioned toward the periphery, suggesting that they are either recently introduced or being phased out over time. In Fig. 5B, different color-coded ellipses represent the clustering of fruit tree compositions based on years of homeownership. It is clear from the figure that the gardens with more than 40 years of history (pink ellipse) have a broader range of species, indicating long-term diversity and stability. On the other hand, newer gardens (less than 5 years, blue ellipse) are more tightly clustered around fewer species, meaning recent homeowners tend to have fewer and more predictable species. Gardens with 11 to 20 years (red ellipse) and 21 to 30 years (yellow ellipse) show moderate diversity.
Home gardens play a significant role in improving the environmental impact of the domestic curtilage (improve localized air cooling, help mitigate flooding, and provide a refuge for wildlife), offering opportunities for nature engagement, self-actualization, creativity, and well-being, and serve as a venue exercise and stress relief (Cameron et al. 2012). Therefore, the characteristics of the home gardens and the existence of minor Mediterranean fruit trees are important elements for homeowners. The results of present study reveal significant correlations between homeownership types and garden characteristics, particularly in plant selection and design approaches. Approximately 42.25% of the participants purchased their homes, granting them the autonomy to design their home gardens or modify the existing gardens according to their own preferences. This autonomy likely influences the diversity and structure of their gardens, aligning with previous research that highlights how property ownership plays a crucial role in determining garden composition and plant selection (Gbedomon et al. 2015). On the other hand, 30.75% of participants built their homes and those had full control over garden design, allowing them to integrate personalized landscaping elements into their own designs (Fletcher et al. 2015; Tsai et al. 2020). The percentage of inherited houses is also very close to the participants who built their homes. The homeowners of inherited houses mostly maintain traditional and/or cultural plant species, reflecting cultural practices passed down through generations. These results are in agreement with studies on the role of cultural ecosystem services in landscape management and planning (Plieninger et al. 2015). In that study, researchers reported that landowners are strongly motivated by a desire for cultural ecosystem services rather than by profit. Overall, it was observed that the predominance of self-designed gardens in current study is 61.75%, which underscores a preference for personal expression in landscaping. These results are in agreement with the findings of Goodness (2018) who noted that individual homeowners often act as primary decision-makers in shaping garden structures. The findings that nearly half of the minor Mediterranean fruits are less than 10 years old and other half are older than 11 years, suggests recent planting activities in garden design. On the other hand, the low percentage of minor Mediterranean fruit trees older than 40 years indicates a decline in older tree populations, which may result from various factors, including changing aesthetic preferences, plant diseases, or climate-related issues (Loram et al. 2011; Neupane et al. 2023; Ofosu-Bamfo et al. 2023).
The study’s findings indicate that fruit trees are the predominant plant type in home gardens, with a presence in 92% of surveyed gardens. This result underscores their economic and nutritional significance, aligning with traditional horticultural practices in the Mediterranean region (Kahramanoglu and Usanmaz 2016). Similarly, a study on Bulgarian rural home gardens highlighted the importance of fruit trees in providing food security and preserving cultural heritage (Ivanova et al. 2021). According to the results obtained, the plant preferences are mostly impacted by homeowners’ personal experience and cultural background. Al-Mayahi et al. (2019) also noted that personal experience and cultural factors significantly influence the gardening decisions in Muscat, Oman. In this research, overall results about the factors affecting plant selection in the home gardens showed an integrated approach to gardening, where personal preferences, cultural influences, and environmental considerations together shape the composition of home gardens (Hansen et al. 2023; Mallick et al. 2024).
According to the results of current study, balance (40.75%) and harmony-contrast (32.75%) are the most frequently applied principles in home garden landscaping. This suggests that many homeowners aim for an aesthetically pleasing and well-structured garden. This suggests that many homeowners aim for an aesthetically pleasing and well-structured garden. Balance, which refers to equilibrium, implies a sense of equality and visual aspect, basically of symmetrical and asymmetrical type. Symmetrical balance is achieved by mirror image of objects. Asymmetry achieved by different forms, colors and textures to obtain balance of visual attraction. Imbalance architectural forms create desirable interesting effects in the garden (Nagajyothi et al. 2023). As connected to this information, balance is formed into two types basically of symmetrical and asymmetrical-type landscape design.
Landscape architecture and horticulture professionals work together, considering factors such as color, texture, growth habits, and care needs to select diverse and hardy plant palettes that complement designs and environmental contexts. Color as an element adds beauty to the garden (Sarı and Karaşah 2018). It is an important part of landscape design as it removes monotonous greenery from the landscape. In summer, annual plants give a vibrant color to the garden, while in autumn, the shading leaves of the trees give a coppery color (Kakkar and Lal 2023). As the season changes, the variety of colors in the garden also changes, creating dynamism in the landscape and attracting attention. This creates joy and peace in the mind, so it is very important to choose the best color combinations in landscape design (Nagajyothi et al. 2023). On the other hand, size is very important to create harmony in general landscape design. In general, the formation of the garden creates proportions, which means grouping the components in the landscape according to the sizes so that all the components fit into it harmoniously (Kakkar and Lal 2023). One of the other essential design elements is texture, which is very effective for landscape design. Texture describes the surface character of an item that can be felt by touch or visual observation. Plants show coarse, coarse, fine, smooth, and shiny textures in the relationship between the arrangement of leaves, twigs, and branches (Hansen 2010; Nagajyothi et al. 2023). The research conducted in this context determined that the most critical issues were color (51.75%), followed by size (45.25%) and texture (43.00%). The design elements that homeowners prioritized in the visual formation of their gardens are compatible with the literature.
The study also analyzed the design approaches of participants and found that traditional design is the most common approach, whereas the originality of design was also significant for the homeowners, indicating that many homeowners adhere to long-standing gardening customs and styles. Traditional and cultural landscape designs still preserve their importance in gardening in the Mediterranean region, which are significant elements for home gardens (Cameron et al. 2012; Ivanova et al. 2021; Plieninger et al. 2015). The design considerations in home garden landscaping of the participants reflect a mixture of traditional principles and personal creativity. The emphasis on balance, harmony, and color suggests a desire for aesthetically pleasing and cohesive garden spaces (Zhang 2024).
The dense use of olive and pomegranate trees in residential gardens underscores their enduring cultural and economic significance. Olives have been integral to Mediterranean agriculture for millennia (Vossen 2007), valued for their adaptability to arid soils, being resistant to salinity stress and requiring minimal cultural practices (Weissbein et al. 2008). Pomegranates are also native to the Mediterranean region, are drought-tolerant, and can grow and develop in dry regions (Kahramanoglu and Usanmaz 2016; Mousa et al. 2025). Both the olive oil (Boumezough et al. 2025) and pomegranate and its derivate (Kahramanoglu and Usanmaz 2016) are highly valued in traditional medicine and modern nutrition. Both of them are known to have a diverse and abundant amount of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which gives health benefit characteristics to these fruits and their derivates, such as cardiovascular protection, improved metabolic and brain health, immune system support, and potential anti-cancer effects. This resilience makes them ideal for residential gardens, especially in areas facing water scarcity and affected by climate change. The cultivation of stone fruit trees such as plum, peach, and apricot in residential gardens indicates a preference for summer fruits, despite their higher maintenance requirements compared with olives or figs. These trees often demand more intensive management (Mir et al. 2021) due to environmental factors and pest pressures (Rather et al. 2021), which can pose challenges for home gardeners. The inclusion of jujube and prickly pear in gardens is likely due to their drought-resistant nature (Sishu et al. 2023), aligning with the need for water conservation in Mediterranean climates. These species can also thrive in arid soils and require fewer cultural practices, contributing to agricultural sustainability and serving as climate change adaptation strategies. Conversely, species like hawthorn, carob, persimmon, and blackberries are less common in residential gardens. This may be attributed to factors such as limited cultural significance or specific cultivation requirements.
The PCA of residential gardens reveals that olive trees exhibit a balanced presence across gardens, whereas the species such as almond, loquat, peach, mulberry, pomegranate, and plum have prominent role in defining variability in the residential gardens. Over recent decades, residential garden compositions have undergone notable shifts. Older gardens tend to have a diversification in fruit species, whereas newer gardens focus on fewer, possibly low-maintenance species. Traditional fruit trees like olive, fig, and pomegranate are more stable across all time periods, reinforcing their cultural and ecological resilience (Kahramanoglu and Usanmaz, 2016; Mousa et al. 2025; Vossen 2007; Weissbein et al. 2008). Less common trees like hawthorn (Caliskan 2015) and jujube (Touwaide 2015) show more variability, potentially reflecting shifts in gardening trends over time. The observed shifts in garden design principles and plant selections have been estimated to multifaceted, driven by climatic changes (Espeland and Kettenring 2018), environmental awareness (Delahay et al. 2023), and evolving societal preferences (Kehlenbeck et al. 2007). These trends reflect a growing emphasis on sustainability and functionality, whereas this trend reduces the plant biodiversity in residential garden designs.
This study highlights the growing role of minor Mediterranean fruit trees in residential gardens, emphasizing the interactions between cultural traditions, environmental adaptability, and shifting homeowner preferences. Findings of current study also demonstrate a progressive transition from diverse, traditionally cultivated gardens toward monotonous, low-maintenance designs, with a strong preference for aesthetic appeal and environmental suitability. Although older gardens exhibit higher biodiversity, newer gardens tend to favor a narrower selection of species, often prioritizing practicality, ease of plant care, aesthetic value, and economic importance. This shift aligns with global urban landscaping trends, in which homeowners increasingly select species that require less water and maintenance, reflecting both climate adaptation strategies and contemporary lifestyle preferences. Overall, results revealed that certain fruit species (mainly store fruits) significantly contribute to garden variability, whereas olive, pomegranate, almond, and fig remain stable across generations. This finding suggests that traditional fruit species retain resilience and cultural continuity, even as new gardening trends emerge. These results underscore the critical need for conservation efforts to safeguard the rich horticultural heritage of the Mediterranean region. Strategies such as native species promotion, sustainable landscape planning, and educational initiatives could enhance biodiversity while preserving culturally significant plant species. Future research should explore the long-term ecological impacts of shifting garden compositions.
(A) Types of plants found in the home gardens and (B) reasons for choosing the fruit trees in the garden (multiple option choices were applicable for B).
Distribution of the participants’ responses to the question “what was considered when selecting plants your garden arrangement?” (multiple option choices were applicable).
(A) Design principles, (B) design elements, and (C) design approaches that participants consider during landscaping their home gardens.
Percentage of minor Mediterranean fruit trees in residential gardens.
(A) Contribution of the variables to the first two principal components and (B) PCA-Biplot of the plant species and years of existence.
Contributor Notes
(A) Types of plants found in the home gardens and (B) reasons for choosing the fruit trees in the garden (multiple option choices were applicable for B).
Distribution of the participants’ responses to the question “what was considered when selecting plants your garden arrangement?” (multiple option choices were applicable).
(A) Design principles, (B) design elements, and (C) design approaches that participants consider during landscaping their home gardens.
Percentage of minor Mediterranean fruit trees in residential gardens.
(A) Contribution of the variables to the first two principal components and (B) PCA-Biplot of the plant species and years of existence.
