Hylocereus undatus [(Haworth) Britton and Rose] is a vine cactus from central America that has been established as a new fruit crop (pitaya) in many tropical and subtropical countries. In order to develop improved irrigation practices, the relationships between water parameters and growth were studied in rooted stem cuttings growing in pots with sandy soil under well-watered and drought-stressed conditions, in a controlled environment. Soil water potential rapidly decreased from -0.02 to -1.5 MPa during the first 5 days of drought. However, growth of new stems emerging from the succulent mature stems only decreased significantly after 3 weeks of drought. After 3 weeks of drought, the water content of growing stems decreased by 2% (P < 0.05) and their water potentials by 0.05 MPa (P > 0.05), as compared with the irrigated controls. At the same time, water content in drought-treated mature stems decreased by 4% (P < 0.05) and water potentials by 0.25 MPa (P < 0.05). Several lines of evidence indicated that active phloem supply of assimilates and associated water reserves from mature stems was the mechanism that allowed developing stems of H. undatus to maintain growth under well-watered and drought conditions: 1) Girdling the phloem of growing stems rapidly inhibited stem elongation. 2) Secretion of sucrose-containing nectar by growing stems was maintained during drought. 3) The water potential gradient was in the wrong direction for xylem transport from mature to young growing stems and axial hydraulic conductivity in young stems was either zero or comparatively low.
for differential cracking susceptibility is not entirely clear. Theoretically, the following two groups of factors may account for variation in cracking susceptibility among cultivars: 1) the water transport characteristics of the fruit surface; and
Rain-induced cracking of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) fruit is thought to be related to water absorption through the fruit surface. Conductance for water uptake (gtot. uptake) through the fruit surface of `Sam' sweet cherry was studied gravimetrically by monitoring water penetration from a donor solution of deionized water through segments of the outer pericarp into a polyethyleneglycol (PEG) containing receiver solution. Segments consisting of cuticle plus five to eight cell layers of epidermal and hypodermal tissue were mounted in stainless steel diffusion cells. Conductance was calculated from flow rates of water across the segment and the difference in osmotic potential between donor and receiver solution. Flow rates were constant up to 12 hours and decreased thereafter. A log normal distribution of gtot. uptake was observed with a median of 0.97 × 10-7 m·s-1. Further, gtot. uptake was not affected by storage duration (up to 71 days) of fruit used as a source of segments, thickness of segments (range 0.1 to 4.8 mm), or segment area exposed in the diffusion cell. Osmolality of the receiver solution in the range from 1140 to 3400 mmol·kg-1 had no effect on gtot. uptake (1.45 ± 0.42 × 10-7 m·s-1), but gtot. uptake increased by 301% (4.37 ± 0.46 × 10-7 m·s-1) at 300 mmol·kg-1. gtot. uptake was highest in the stylar scar region of the fruit (1.44 ± 0.16 × 10-7 m·s-1) followed by cheek (1.02 ±0.21 × 10-7 m·s-1), suture (0.57 ±0.17 × 10-7 m·s-1) and pedicel cavity regions (0.22 ±0.09 × 10-7 m·s-1). Across regions, gtot. uptake was related positively to stomatal density. Extracting total cuticular wax by dipping fruit in chloroform/methanol increased gtot. uptake from 1.18 ± 0.23 × 10-7 m·s-1 to 2.58 ± 0.41 × 10-7 m·s-1, but removing epicuticular wax by cellulose acetate stripping had no effect (1.59 ± 0.28 × 10-7 m·s-1). Water flux increased with increasing temperature (range 20 to 45 °C). Conductance differed between cultivars with `Hedelfinger' sweet cherry having the highest gtot. uptake (2.81 ± 0.26 × 10-7 m·s-1), followed by `Namare' (2.68 ± 0.26 × 10-7 m·s-1), `Kordia' (0.96 ± 0.14 × 10-7 m·s-1), `Sam' (0.87 ± 0.15 × 10-7 m·s-1), and `Adriana' (0.33 ± 0.02 × 10-7 m·s-1). The diffusion cell system described herein may be useful in analyzing conductance in water uptake through the fruit surface of sweet cherry and its potential relevance for fruit cracking.
Water uptake in different regions of the sweet cherry fruit (Prunus avium L. cv. Sam) was investigated following selective application of silicone sealant to the pedicel end, pedicel cavity, pedicel/fruit juncture, or stylar scar of detached fruit. The time course of water uptake was monitored gravimetrically during a 3-hour incubation period in deionized water (20 °C). Sealing the pedicel end and/or pedicel/fruit juncture significantly reduced rates and total amount (3 hours) of water uptake, but sealing the stylar scar had no effect. The amount of water penetrating via the pedicel/fruit juncture increased between 50 and 85 days after full bloom. During the same period the maximum force required to detach pedicels from fruit (fruit removal force) fell from 5.2 ± 0.5 to 2.1 ± 0.2 N. The amount of water penetrating via the pedicel/fruit juncture and the fruit removal force were negatively related. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging of mature fruit incubated in D2O indicated that D2O accumulated in the pedicel cavity region and the pedicel. Our data suggest that the pedicel end and pedicel/fruit juncture, but not the stylar scar, are regions of preferential water uptake in detached fruit. Chemical name used: deuterium oxide (D2O).
The Cohesion Tension Theory, first in 1894 introduced by Dixon and Joly is the theory most often invoked to explain water movement in a transpiring plant. The pressure chamber technique has provided the strongest indirect evidence for this theory. However, controversy remains because 1) the necessary pressure gradients in xylem vessels have never been measured directly; 2) it is uncertain how continuous water columns under great tensions could persist in a metastable state for extended periods of time, and; 3) direct pressure probe measurements on individual xylem vessels have not been indicative of the extreme negative pressures obtained with the pressure chamber. Xylem fluid is an energy-limited resource containing the lowest available carbon (energy content = 2 to 15 J/cm3) of any plant tissue. However, many species of xylophagous leafhoppers subsist entirely on this dilute food source, despite the negative pressures thought to occur in xylem vessels. Carbon limitations of leafhoppers were underscored by 1) high feeding rates; 2) an unprecedented assimilation efficiency of organic compounds (i.e., >99%); 3) ammonotelism, and; 4) synchronization of feeding to optimum host nutrient content both seasonally and diurnally. The maximum tension that can be generated by the cibarial pumping mechanism of an insect based on anatomy and biochemistry is about 0.3 to 0.6 MPa, far below the purported xylem tensions occurring during most daylight hours. By contrast, we have shown that feeding has been usually independent of xylem tensions, as measured with a pressure chamber, and instead was a function of the amide content of xylem fluid. Moreover, the calculated net energy gain of insect feeding (or that contained within insect biomass) on xylem fluid of a given composition under a given tension have also been an a paradox. Experiments will be described that provide insight into the energetics of xylem fluid extraction.
Water conductance of the cuticle of mature fruit of apple [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf., `Golden Delicious' Reinders/`Malling 9' (M.9)], sweet cherry (Prunus avium L., `Sam'/`Alkavo'), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum Fasciculatum Group, `Jive'), and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was de ter mined using excised epidermal segments (consisting of epidermis, hypodermis, and some cell layers of parenchyma) and enzymatically isolated cuticular membranes (CM) from the same sample of fruit. Segments or CM were mounted in diffusion cells and transpiration was monitored gravimetrically. Conductance (m·s-1) was calculated by dividing the flux of water per unit segment or CM area (kg·m-2·s-1) by the difference in water vapor concentration (kg·m-3) across segments or CM. Transpiration through segments and through CM increased with time. Conductance of segments was consistently lower than that of newly isolated CM (3 days or less). Conductance decreased with increasing time after isolation for apple, grape, or sweet cherry CM, and for sweet cherry CM with increasing temperature during storage (5 to 33 °C for 4 days). There was no significant effect of duration of storage of CM on conductance in pepper or tomato fruit. Following storage of CM for more than 30 days, differences in conductance between isolated CM and excised segments decreased in apple, grape, and sweet cherry, but not in pepper or tomato. Use of metabolic inhibitors (1 mm NaN3 or 0.1 mm CCCP), or pretreatment of segments by freezing (-19 °C for 18 hours), or vacuum infiltration with water, had no effect on conductance of apple fruit segments. Our results suggest that living cells present on excised segments do not affect conductance and that epidermal segments provide a useful model system for quantifying conductance without the need for isolating the CM. Chemical names used: sodium azide (NaN3); carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP).
Water uptake through the exocarp of intact sweet cherry [Prunus avium (L.)] fruit was determined gravimetrically in an immersion assay (25 °C). Fruit with sealed pedicel/fruit juncture were incubated in water during the first interval (0 to 0.75 hour) and in 10 mm salt solutions of selected cations during the second (0.75 to 1.5 hours) and third interval (1.5 to 2.25 hours) of an experiment. Rates of water uptake (F) were calculated for first, second and third intervals (FI, FII and FIII, respectively) and salt effects indexed by the ratios FII/FI and FIII/FI. AgNO3 (FII/FI = 0.65), NaCl (0.70), BaCl2 (0.67), CdCl2 (0.69), CuCl2 (0.42), HgCl2 (0.58), and SrCl2 (0.69), and the salts of trivalent cations AlCl3 (0.50), EuCl3 (0.58), and FeCl3 (0.49), significantly decreased water uptake into mature `Sam' fruit as compared to the water control (0.87). KCl (0.82), NH4Cl (0.85), CaCl2 (0.75), MgCl2 (0.88), MnCl2 (0.81), and ZnCl2 (0.72) had no effect, LiCl (1.00) increased uptake. Similar data were obtained for FIII/FI. The effect of FeCl3 on water uptake was independent of the presence of CaCl2, AlCl3, or CuCl2, as sequential or simultaneous treatment with these salts reduced water uptake to the same extent as with FeCl3 alone. Increasing FeCl3 concentration up to 1 mm decreased uptake, higher concentrations had no further effect. FeCl3 and CaCl2 to a smaller extent decreased water uptake in developing `Regina' sweet cherry fruit (55 to 91 days after full bloom). FeCl3 had no significant effect on water uptake along the pedicel/fruit juncture, but markedly reduced uptake through the exocarp of all cultivars investigated (`Burlat', `Early Rivers', `Hedelfinger', `Knauffs', `Regina', `Sam', `Summit', and `Van'). Effects of CaCl2 on water uptake were limited to `Burlat', `Early Rivers', and `Hedelfinger'. CaCl2 and FeCl3 both decreased fruit cracking, but FeCl3 was more effective. The mode of action of mineral salts in decreasing water uptake and fruit cracking and their potential for field use are discussed.
emphasizing the production per unit area toward maximizing the production per unit of water consumed ( Deng et al., 2006 ). From classic views of physics, water transport along the soil–plant–atmosphere continuum is a passive process driven by gradients of
, trees are exposed to mechanical shock and vibration that can further disrupt the root system and cause considerable damage to trunks and crowns. Water is typically not available during transport; tissue desiccation can greatly affect tree survival if
ammonium (NH 4 + ) and nitrate ions were leached with 120 mL of DI water, which was slightly less than the total column volume (170 mL). With the exception of Brown and Pokorny (1977) , no other studies solely focused on anion or cation transport in