single application, and large areas would require overseeding ( Branham et al., 2005 ). In an unpublished Maryland study, however, four summer applications of the ester formulation of triclopyr applied at 1.12 kg·ha −1 a.i. were shown to safely control
, which identified four esters that were considerably enhanced in amount by this treatment. Of these two, ethyl hexanoate and ethyl butanoate were both present in concentrations well exceeding published aroma thresholds for standards of these compounds in
fruits. In apples ( Malus × domestica ), more than 300 volatile compounds (esters, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, and hydrocarbons) have been identified (Dimick and Hoskin, 1983 ; Flath et al., 1967 ). Of these volatiles, esters are the most important
Esters are the primary aroma impact compounds produced in ripening apple fruit and normally account for 80% to 95% of the total volatiles emitted ( Paillard, 1990 ). Fresh apples autonomously produce an abundance of hexyl acetate, butyl acetate, and
The synthetic and/or catabolic pathways of the amino acids valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, and alanine contribute to the formation of odor-active alcohols, aldehydes, carbonyls, and esters in edible plant parts ( Azevedo et
The temporal relationship between changes in ethylene production, respiration, skin color, chlorophyll fluorescence, volatile ester biosynthesis, and expression of ACC oxidase (ACO) and alcohol acyl-CoA transferase (AAT) in ripening banana (Musa L. spp., AAA group, Cavendish subgroup. `Valery') fruit was investigated at 22 °C. Ethylene production rose to a peak a few hours after the onset of its logarithmic phase; the peak in production coincided with maximal ACO expression. The respiratory rise began as ethylene production increased, reaching its maximum ≈30 to 40 hours after ethylene production had peaked. Green skin coloration and photochemical efficiency, as measured by chlorophyll fluorescence, declined simultaneously after the peak in ethylene biosynthesis. Natural ester biosynthesis began 40 to 50 hours after the peak in ethylene biosynthesis, reaching maximal levels 3 to 4 days later. While AAT expression was detected throughout, the maximum level of expression was detected at the onset of natural ester biosynthesis. The synthesis of unsaturated esters began 100 hours after the peak in ethylene and increased with time, suggesting the lipoxygenase pathway be a source of ester substrates late in ripening. Incorporation of exogenously supplied ester precursors (1-butanol, butyric acid, and 3-methyl-1-butanol) in the vapor phase into esters was maturity-dependent. The pattern of induced esters and expression data for AAT suggested that banana fruit have the capacity to synthesize esters over 100 hours before the onset of natural ester biosynthesis. We hypothesize the primary limiting factor in ester biosynthesis before natural production is precursor availability, but, as ester biosynthesis is engaged, the activity of alcohol acyl-CoA transferase the enzyme responsible for ester biosynthesis, exerts a major influence.
Abstract
A simple procedure for synthesizing and purifying the [14C]ethyl ester of IAA (Et-IAA) is described. This auxin has been found to stimulate parthenocarpic fruit set in day-neutral strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duch. ‘Fern’), which are non-responsive to various other auxins. Et-IAA may prove useful in eliciting physiological responses in systems shown previously to be auxin-nonresponsive. Chemical name used: 1H-indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).
Abstract
Two tolerant and 2 susceptible lines of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and their progenies were evaluated for tolerance to the herbicide methyl 3-amino-2,5-dichlorobenzoic acid (chloramben methyl ester). Gene action was primarily additive; however, partial dominance of genes controlling tolerance was noted. Evidence for transgressive segregation was observed in segregating populations of the cross tolerant x tolerant. The minimum number of effective factor pairs varied from 1 to 5 depending on the evaluation criterion and the method of calculation employed. Heritability estimates from crosses involving tolerant MSU 0612 were consistently higher than those involving tolerant MSU 3207, suggesting that the tolerance of these 2 lines may be conditioned by different genes. Estimates of heritability indicated that considerable progress can be made in selection for tolerance when the criterion used is epinasty or reduction in plant dry weight and height.
Quantitative and qualitative changes in net production of volatile compounds by apples occurs during fruit development with a major transition to ester production occurring as fruit ripening begins. Ester production during fruit ripening is an ethylene-mediated response; however, differences in maturation patterns among apple cultivars led us to examine the relationship between ester production and onset of the ethylene climacteric in several commercial apple cultivars. Emission of volatile esters as a function of apple fruit development was evaluated for `Royal Gala', `Bisbee Delicious', `Granny Smith', and `Fuji' apple fruit during two harvest seasons. Apples were harvested weekly and analyses of harvest maturity were performed the day after harvest. Non-ethylene volatiles were collected from intact fruit using dynamic headspace sampling onto Tenax traps. Fruit from each harvest was stored at 1°C in air for 5 months (3 months for `Royal Gala') plus 7 days ripening at 20°C, then apples were evaluated for the development of disorders. The transition to ester production occurred after internal ethylene exceeded 0.1 μL for `Royal Gala', `Bisbee Delicious', and `Fuji'. Ester emission by `Granny Smith' apples remained low throughout the harvest period. Increased ester emission occurred after the optimum harvest date (as determined by the starch index and internal ethylene concentration) for controlled-atmosphere storage of `Bisbee Delicious' and prior to optimum maturity for `Royal Gala' and `Fuji'. A relationship between the potential for development of superficial scald and ester production at harvest was evident only for `Bisbee Delicious' apples.
Fruit quality and volatile compounds produced by apple fruit (Malus ×domestica Borkh. `Gala') were characterized following regular atmosphere (RA) or controlled atmosphere (CA) storage at 1°C. Static CA conditions were 1, 1.9, 2.8, or 3.7 kPa O2. Fruit stored under dynamic CA conditions were exposed to ambient air 1, 2, or 3 days per week for 8 hours then returned to 1 kPa O2. All CA treatments included 2 kPa CO2. Ethylene production was reduced following CA storage plus 1 day at 20°C compared with apples stored in RA. Apples stored in static 1 kPa O2 and the dynamic treatments had lower ethylene production compared with apples stored in 1.9 to 3.7 kPa O2 after 90 and 120 days. Ethylene production by apples from all CA treatments recovered during a 7-day poststorage ripening period at 20°C. Ester production was reduced following CA at 1 kPa O2 after 60 days compared with RA-stored fruit. Production of butyl acetate by apples stored in 1 kPa O2 static CA was 29%, 30%, and 7% of that produced by RA-stored fruit after 60, 90, and 120 days storage plus 7 days at 20°C. Amounts of 2-methylbutyl acetate were not affected by CA storage, however, production of other 2-methylbutyrate esters was reduced following 1 kPa O2 storage. Ester production increased with O2 concentration after 90 days in storage. The dynamic treatments resulted in greater ester emission after 120 days storage plus 7 days at 20°C compared with apples stored in static 1 kPa O2. Production of 1-methoxy-(2-propenyl) benzene by apples subjected to dynamic treatments was also higher after 120 days storage plus 7 days at 20°C compared with apples stored in RA or static CA. No differences in firmness, titratable acidity or soluble solids content were observed between apples stored in 1 kPa O2 and the dynamic treatments. Firmness and titratable acidity were maintained better by dynamic treatments compared with static atmospheres containing > 1 kPa O2.