Inflorescence and flower development of the `Hass' avocado (Persea americana Mill.) were investigated at the macro- and microscopic level with three objectives: 1) to determine the time of transition from vegetative to reproductive growth; 2) to develop a visual scale correlating external inflorescence and flower development with the time and pattern of organogenesis; and 3) to quantify the effect of high (“on”) and low (“off”) yields on the flowering process. Apical buds (or expanding inflorescences) borne on summer shoots were collected weekly from July to August during an “on” and “off” crop year. Collected samples were externally described and microscopically analyzed. The transition from vegetative to reproductive condition probably occurred from the end of July through August (end of shoot expansion). During this transition the primary axis meristem changed shape from convex to flat to convex. These events were followed by the initiation of additional bracts and their associated secondary axis inflorescence meristems. A period of dormancy was not a prerequisite for inflorescence development. Continued production of secondary axis inflorescence meristems was observed from August to October, followed by anthesis seven months later. In all, eleven visual stages of bud development were distinguished and correlated with organogenesis to create a scale that can be used to predict specific stages of inflorescence and flower development. Inflorescence development was correlated with minimum temperature ≤15 °C, whereas yield had little effect on the timing of developmental events of individual inflorescence buds. However, the high yield of the “on” year reduced inflorescence number and increased the number of vegetative shoots. No determinate inflorescences were produced during the “on” year. For the “off” year, 3% and 42% of shoots produced determinate and indeterminate inflorescences, respectively.
Pre-ripe `Booth 7' avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit, a cross of West Indian and Guatemalan strains, were treated with 0.9 μL·L-1 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) for 12 hours at 20 °C. After storage for 18 days in air at 13 °C, at which time whole fruit firmness values averaged about 83 N, half of the 1-MCP-treated fruit were treated with 100 μL·L-1 ethylene for 12 hours and then transferred to 20 °C. 1-MCP delayed softening, and fruit treated with 1-MCP retained more green color than air-treated fruit when full ripe (firmness 10 to 15 N). 1-MCP affected the activities of pectinmethylesterase (EC 3.2.1.11), α-(EC 3.2.1.22) and β-galactosidases (EC 3.2.1.23), and endo-β-1,4-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4). The appearance of polygalacturonase (EC 3.2.1.15) activity was completely suppressed in 1-MCP-treated fruit for up to 24 days, at which time the firmness of 1-MCP-treated fruit had declined nearly 80% compared with initial values. The effect of exogenous ethylene applied to partially ripened 1-MCP-treated fruit differed for different ripening parameters. Ethylene applied to mid-ripe avocado exerted no effect on the on-going rate or final extent of softening of 1-MCP-treated fruit, even though polygalacturonase and endo-1,4-β-glucanase activities increased in response to ethylene. β-galactosidase decreased in 1-MCP-treated fruit in response to ethylene treatment. 1-MCP delayed the increase in solubility and depolymerization of water- and CDTA (1,2-cyclohexylenedinitrilotetraacetic acid)-soluble polyuronides, likely due to reduced polygalacturonase activity. At the full-ripe stage, the levels of arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose associated with the CDTA-soluble polyuronide fraction were similar among all treatments. In contrast, the galactose levels of water-soluble polyuronides declined 40% and 17% in control and 1-MCP treated fruit, respectively. Hemicellulose neutral sugar composition was unaffected by 1-MCP or ethylene treatment. The data indicate that the capacity of avocado fruit to recover from 1-MCP-mediated suppression of ripening can be only partially amended through short-term ethylene application and differs significantly for different ripening parameters.
A procedure was developed to regenerate plants via tissue culture from embryonic axes of mature avocado seeds. Explants were cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with benzyladenine (BA) and naphthalene-acetic acid (NAA) or thidiazuron (TDZ) and NAA. Culture were kept in the dark for 7-10 days to reduce browning resulting from phenolic oxidation. Multiple shoots (5-8) were formed after transfer to light. Further multiplication were achieved using different combination of BA and NAA or TDZ and NAA. Shoots were cultured in MS supplemented with 2mg/l indolebutyric acid (IBA) for 2 weeks then transferred to MS supplemented with lg/l activated charcoal for root induction. Complete plants were obtained in vitro.
In southern California, avocados are often left in the field for up to 12 hours after harvest. Fruit in the bin may reach up to 40C during the summer months and may take up to 24 hours to cool to the recommended storage temperature. A study was conducted using `Hass' avocados over two growing season during the months of July and August to determine the effect of delayed cooling on fruit quality. Fruit were held at 20, 30 or 40 C for 0, 6, 12 or 24 hours before storage at 5C for 0, 2, 4, or 6 weeks. Fruit quality was determined by flesh firmness, time to ripe, vascular and flesh discoloration and the presence or absence of decay. The level of damage seen in storage varied with the harvest. Overall, after 4 or 6 weeks in storage, there was a considerable increase in either vascular or flesh discoloration and decay especially when fruit had been held at 30 or 40C prior to storage. The results indicate that harvested avocados should be kept as cool as possible in the field and that fruit should be processed within 12 hours for storage periods greater than 2 weeks.
Abstract
Treatment with calcium (0.1 M CaSO4, 0.1 M CaCl2) depressed respiration of avocado fruits during preclimacteric and climacteric phases. Na2SO4 was ineffective. Calcium not only inhibited respiration but delayed the onset of the climacteric and depressed the peak of ethylene production at the climacteric rise. Determinations of endogenous Ca confirmed that higher levels were positively correlated to delay in ripening and negatively correlated to peak of CO2 and ethylene production. It is inferred that this difference in Ca level is one of the factors causing lack of uniformity in ripening.
Abstract
The inability of ‘Fuerte’ and ‘Hass’ avocado fruits to ripen on the tree has been attributed to a ripening inhibitor which has been presumed to be transported from the tree to the fruits. These studies, undertaken to explain this phenomenon, indicate that leaves, usually considered to be the source of this substance, did not delay ripening. Fruit on detached branches abscissed before ripening and softened later than detached fruit. Leaves on the detached branches accelerated abscission and subsequent ripening. Fruit detached from the branch with the peduncle attached ripened later than when it was removed. The peduncle and stem may supply a ripening inhibitor to the fruit or the stem may act as a sink for a ripening hormone produced in the fruit.
Abstract
Principal components and cluster analyses, based on 67 characters, were applied to 38 cultivars, which collectively exemplified the 3 races of avocado and their racial hybrids. Diagrams constructed from principal component analysis clearly showed the phenetic diversity of the 3 races and their racial hybrids. Correlation and distance phenograms from cluster analyses did not show overall phenetic diversity as well as principal component diagrams. The phenograms were most useful, however, in showing phenetic similarities among closely related cultivars, which were obscure in principal component analysis. The 2 methods are, thus, complementary, and both methods are recommended in studying patterns of variation with species such as avocado.
The Fuerte avocado cultivar is known to be an alternate and inconsistent producer of avocados in cool coastal areas and hot interior areas of California because of its sensitivity to such extremes of climate during its bloom and fruit setting periods. This study attempted to increase fruit set and yield of this cultivar in a cool central coast area by applying a three-eighths inch wide girdle to one large limb, equivalent to one-third of the tree, on each of five 43-year-old trees. A double bladed girdling knife was used to remove the bark all around each limb. Another equal sized limb on each tree was used as the control. Girdling was completed on December 15. Girdled limbs had means of 42.6 more pounds which was 186.8% more fruit yield as compared to control limbs. Girdled limbs also had means of 89 more fruit which was 222.5% more fruit by count than control limbs. Fruit on girdled limbs was smaller in size (8.1 oz. average) than that on control limbs (9.1 oz. average) but was still of an acceptable size to bring good prices.
Most fruit-tree breeding projects are based on selection of seedlings in regard to their performance. The selected seedlings are vegetatively propagated, usually by grafting. It is highly important for the breeder to know whether the performance of the grafted tree will resemble the performance of the original seedling. In this study the performance of avocado and mango seedlings was compared with that of their grafted duplicates. Significant differences were found in only 8 out of 36 avocado traits and 2 out of 10 mango traits. Significant seedling x graft interaction was detected in 10 other avocado traits. These differences were considered of no practical significance, since their magnitude was of minor importance for the breeder. The conclusion for avocado and mango breeders is that for most traits selection could be carried out on ungrafted seedlings.
The sugary exudate appearing on bark lesions of Persea americana Miller and Persea indica plants after infection with Phytophthora citricola contained viable oospores and hyphal fragments in the field and in the greenhouse. This sugary exudate was a source of inoculum and dispersal of the pathogen within and between avocado plants. Spraying water onto lesions moved inoculum from the sugary exudate to wounds below. Water from sprinkler irrigation washed propagules into the soil around the plants. Viable propagules of Phytophthora citricola were identified in the feces of snails (Helix aspersa) that had fed on infected bark tissues. When these snails were moved to healthy plants, they made wounds on succulent tissue, and the infectious feces induced cankers. Ants (Iridomyrmex humilis) were attracted to the sugary exudate and also transmitted infectious propagules to wounds on avocado stems and to the soil. Control strategy for the avocado stem canker disease should consider control of vectors.