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Polyethylene glycol 8000 (PEG-8000) was applied to a soilless growing medium at the concentrations of 0, 15, 20, 30, 42, or 50 g·L-1 to impose controlled drought. Salvia (Salvia splendens F. Sellow. ex Roem & Shult.) seeds were planted in the growing medium to determine if controlled drought affects morphology and anatomy of salvia. Polyethylene glycol decreased emergence percentage and delayed emergence up to 5 days. Stem elongation of salvia treated with the five lowest concentrations was reduced up to 35% (21 days after seeding), and salvia were a maximum of 53% shorter and the canopy was 20% more narrow compared to nontreated seedlings 70 days after seeding. These morphological changes were attributed to PEG-8000 mediated reduction in leaf water potential (Ψw). The growing medium Ψw ranged from -0.29 to -0.85 MPa in PEG-8000 treated plants, and plant height was positively correlated with Ψw 21 days after seeding. Stem diameter of PEG-treated seedlings was reduced up to 0.4 mm mainly due to reductions in vascular cross-sectional area. Xylem cross-sectional area decreased more than stem and phloem cross-sectional area. Polyethylene glycol 8000 reduced vessel element number, but not diameter.
High temperature reduces fruit set in bell pepper [Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum (Grossum Group)], and reduction of pepper productivity, resulting from high temperature, may be a direct effect of temperature or an indirect effect of water stress induced by increased vapor pressure deficits (VPDs) at high temperature. We evaluated responses of plant growth, reproduction, net photosynthesis (PN), chlorophyll fluorescence, predawn respiration, leaf water potential, and stomatal conductance of `Ace' and `Bell Boy' bell pepper to elevated temperature (33 °C) with increased VPD (2.1 kPa) or elevated temperature with no increase in VPD (1.1 kPa). VPD had no effect on flower number or fruit set and did not adversely influence the physiological processes measured. Therefore, deleterious effects of high temperature on pepper fruit set does not appear to be temperature induced water stress, but is more likely a direct temperature response. Elevated temperature decreased fruit set but not flower production. Gas exchange measurements suggest failure to set fruit was not due to reduced leaf photosynthesis.
Leaf physiology and plant growth of Photinia x fraseri Dress were assessed when grown under full sunlight or (100% sun) or polypropylene shadecloth with a light transmittance of 69%, 47%, or 29% sun. Plants in 69% or 47% sun usually had the highest midday net CO2 assimilation rates (A). Net CO, assimilation rate was most dependent on photosynthetic photon flex (PPF R2 = 0.60), whereas stomata] conductance to water vapor was primarily influenced by vapor pressure deficit (R2 = 0.69). Stomatal conductance was often inversely related to sun level, and intercellular CO2 concentration was often elevated under 29% sun. Midday relative leaf water content and leaf water potential were unaffected by light regime. Light-saturated A was achieved at ≈ 1550 and 1150 μmol·m-2·s-1 for 100% and 29% sun-grown plants, respectively. Under 29% sun, plants had a lower light compensation point and a higher A at PPF < 1100 μmol·m-2·s-1. Total growth was best under 100% sun in terms of growth index (GI) increase, total leaf area, number of leaves, and dry weight (total, stem, leaf, and root), although plants from all treatments had the same GI increase by the end of the experiment. Plants in all treatments had acceptable growth habit (upright and well branched); however, plants grown in 29% sun were too sparsley foliated to be considered marketable. There were no differences in growth among the four treatments 7 months after the Photinia were transplanted to the field.
`Imperial Gala' apple trees (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) on M.9 EMLA, MM.111, and Mark rootstocks were subjected to two drought-stress and recovery periods in a rainshelter. Water relations, gas-exchange parameters per unit leaf area and per tree, chlorophyll fluorescence, and leaf abscisic acid content were determined during each stress and recovery period. Whole-plant calculated gas exchange best indicated plant response to drought stress, with consistent reductions in CO2 assimilation, transpiration, and leaf conductance. Variable and maximal chlorophyll fluorescence and fluorescence quenching were not as sensitive to stress. Other fluorescence parameters showed little difference. The most consistent decreases due to stress for gas exchange per square meter were in transpiration and leaf conductance, with few differences in CO2 assimilation and fewer for mesophyll conductance, internal CO2 concentration, and water-use efficiency. Leaf water potential was consistently lower during drought stress and returned to control values upon irrigation. Leaf abscisic acid content was higher for drought-stressed trees on M.9 EMLA than control trees during the stress periods but inconsistently different for the other rootstock treatments. Trees on M.9 EMLA were least affected by drought stress, MM.111 was intermediate, and Mark was the most sensitive; these results are consistent with the growth data.
A polypropylene fabric containing control-release pellets of the herbicide, trifluralin, can be oriented in the soil to regulate the distribution of plant roots. In 1990, trenches were dug near 10-year-old red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and 10-year-old yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) and fabric containing trifluralin control-release pellets and polypropylene fabric alone were installed vertically to redirect root growth. Roots grew alongside trifluralin fabric and fabric alone and did not penetrate either fabric 38 months after installation. Shoot growth of yellow poplar was reduced about 47% each year by the trifluralin fabric treatment compared to control. Red oak shoot growth was not affected by trifluralin fabric. Leaf water potential was not affected by treatment in either species. Trifluralin residues in trifluralin fabric decreased from 23.3% to 22.0% from July 1990 to October 1993. During this time, trifluralin levels increased from 0.4 to 3.6 mg·kg-1 in soil sampled 0 to 15 cm below trifluralin fabric. These results suggest that controlled-release trifluralin will provide persistent inhibition of root and shoot growth of some species and will not migrate significantly in the soil. Chemical names used: α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N-N-dipropyl-p-toluidine (trifluralin).
Mechanisms of sugar accumulation in response to drought stress in Satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc.) fruit were investigated. Predawn leaf water potentials averaged -0.35MPa for well-watered, -0.60 MPa for moderately drought-stressed, and -1.00 MPa for severely drought-stressed glasshouse-grown 3-year-old trees. Fruit peel turgor and fruit growth of the moderately drought-stressed trees recovered to a similar value to that of the well-watered trees. Photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance of both moderately and severely drought-stressed trees were significantly lower than those of the well-watered plants. However, the total sugar content per fruit of moderately drought-stressed trees was the highest among the drought treatments. A 13C-labeling experiment showed that 13C distribution in fruit grown under the moderately drought-stressed condition was the highest. These findings indicate that sugar accumulation in fruit was caused by an increase in translocation of photosynthates into fruit, especially into the juice sacs, under drought stress.
Flower bud injury resulting from freezing temperatures has been a major problem in jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C. Schneid.] production. A 3-year field study, which began with 4-year-old plants, evaluated the effect of three irrigation treatments on growth, flower bud survival, seed yield, seed weight, and seed wax concentration of six clones. After 3 years, irrigation cut-off dates of late May (dry treatment) and early September (medium treatment) resulted in reduced plant height and width compared to irrigating through November (wet treatment). Flower bud survival and seed yields were very low in the first year for all treatments. In the second and third years, bud survival for most clones, even at -8C, was greatly improved by withholding water in the fall. In December of the second and third years, plants in the medium and dry plots had lower leaf water potential than those in the wet plot. In the second year, plants in the medium and dry plots had seed yields that were 3.5 times higher and wax yields that were were 2.3 times higher than plants in the wet plot. In the third year, the medium treatment had the highest seed and wax yields. Average seed weight and seed wax concentration were generally highest for plants in the wet plot where seed yields were low. Withholding irrigation from jojoba in the fall appears to improve flower bud survival and seed and wax yields following cold winters.
GLK-8903, an experimental product whose main ingredient is produced by hydrogenation of a primary alcohol extracted from plants, showed significant potential in protecting bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants from chilling injury. The GLK-8903 protection mechanism was assessed by examining several physiological and biochemical responses. The decline in leaf water potential and the increase in osmotic potential caused by chilling exposure to 4C (day/night) were minimized by the application of GLK-8903. Chilling causes an increase in electrolyte leakage, an indication of chilling injury of the plasma membrane. Increased electrolyte leakage was reduced significantly in the GLK-8903-treated plants during chilling. This minimized leakage may be due to less damage of the plasma membrane. Plasmolysis and deplasmolysis studies of the epidermal cells suggest that GLK-8903 is able to reduce the plasma membrane perturbation in the chilling environment, as evident by: 1) the lower permeability coefficient to urea at 4C, and 2) the swelling of protoplasts in the cells of untreated tissues after chilling exposure with no swelling of the protoplast being observed in the GLK-8903-treated cells. Malondialdehyde (MDA), a product of lipid peroxidation, increased more in untreated controls than in treated plants exposed to 4C. Plasma membrane ATPase activity decreased less in GLK-8903-treated plants than in untreated controls after 3 days at 4C. The mechanism of GLK-8903-alleviated chilling injury is discussed.
Stomatal conductance (g s) of `Hosui' Asian pear (Pyrus serotina Rehder) trees growing in lysimeters was characterized for trees in well-watered soil and after brief water deficit. The measures of water status used to interpret g s data were soil-water content, leaf water potential (ψl), and instantaneous water use (trunk sap flow by the compensation heat-pulse technique). The diurnal course and range of g s values of well-irrigated Asian pear trees were similar to those reported for other tree fruit crops. Soil moisture at the end of a midsummer deficit period was 60% of lysimeter pot capacity, and diurnal ψl reflected this deficit predawn and in the late afternoon compared to well-irrigated trees. The g s was sensitive to deficit irrigation during more of the day than ψl, with g s values <3 mm·s-1 for most of the day; these were less than half the conductances of well-irrigated trees. The reduction of g s in response to a given soil-water deficit was not as great on days with lower evaporative demand. After a water deficit, g s recovered to predeficit values only gradually over 2 to 3 days. The low g s of trees in dry soil was the apparent cause of reduced transpiration, measured by trunk sap flow, and reduced responsiveness of sap flow to fluctuations in net radiation.
Cucumber plants were cultured in a greenhouse and subjected to either well-watered or water deficit conditions that reduced leaf water potential to-0.6 MPa. Leaf gas exchange measurements were conducted using an open gas exchange system. Carbon dioxide assimilation (A) attained saturation at a photon flux density (PFD) of 1000 μmol·m-2·s-1 (400-700 nm). There were no significant differences in A at ambient temperatures between 16 and 34C. Water use efficiency decreased rapidly with increasing vapor-pressure deficits to 2.5 kPa. Water stressed plants had lower stomata1 conductances and CO2 assimilation rates. The decrease in A was only partially due to stomata1 closure. The A vs. intercellular CO (Ci) relationship for stressed leaves revealed a change in the CO, compensation point, and that nonstomatal factors were contributing to the decrease in A in stressed plants. Thus, feedback inhibition of A may have occurred through photoassimilate accumulation. The concentrations of sucrose and raffinose were higher, and the concentration of stachyose was lower in leaves of stressed than of well-watered plants.