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The diversity of coverings for the greenhouse and other plant production structures has increased dramatically during the past 4 decades. This has resulted from the availability of new types of covering materials and enhancements of previously existing materials, as well as the demands for technological improvements within the expanding controlled environment agricultural industry. The types of coverings currently available are dominated by plastics. These range from traditional glass to the recent advent of polymer plastics, such as thin films or multilayer rigid thermoset plastic panels. Available enhancements such as ultraviolet radiation (UV) degradation inhibitors, infrared radiation (IR) absorbency, and anti-condensation drip surfaces, as well as their physical and spectral properties are discussed. The selection of specific covering alternatives has implications for the greenhouse superstructure and its enclosed crop production system.
The beneficial influences of gypsum on soil improvement and plant growth have been well-documented, Among these benefits are reclamation of sodic soils, alleviation of subsoil acidity problems, and contribution of Ca and S as nutrients. There are three industrial byproducts that contain significant amounts of gypsum. Phosphogypsum is probably the best-known byproduct gypsum source; the others are clean-air technology coal combustion byproducts, namely fluidized bed combustion and flue gas desulfurization residues. This review summarizes the beneficial chemical and physical effects of gypsum on soil properties and the resultant benefits on plant growth. Where applicable, emphasis is placed on potential uses and limitations of byproduct gypsum sources on horticultural crops. The potential for incorporating these materials in artificial mixtures with organic materials is discussed.
suitability. Topographic suitability relates to the physical ability to manage a vineyard (i.e., ability for machinery to safely operate on a site) and influence over mesoclimatic (subregional to vineyard scale) conditions. Slope and aspect are both readily
`Formosa' azalea (Rhododendron indicum) was grown for 4 months in 7.6-L (2 gal) containers in four substrate blends: 100% pine bark (PB) (by volume), 1 PB: 1 cotton gin compost (CGC), 3 PB: 1 CGC, and 3 PB: 1 peat (PT) at three irrigation levels [600, 1200, and 1800 mL·d-1 (20.3, 40.6, and 60.9 floz/d)] in a polyethylene-covered greenhouse. Plants were evaluated for growth on a biweekly basis using a growth index. Roots were evaluated visually at the end of the study using a 0 (no root growth) to 5 (root bound) scale. Initial physical properties were determined and leachates were collected every 30 days. There was no difference in percent increase in growth across irrigation and substrate treatments. Visual root rating was greatest (4.5) for azaleas grown in 3 PB: 1 PT and least (3.5) in 1 PB: 1 CGC. The two PB/CGC blends improved water-holding capacity (WHC) in comparison to 100% PB, with 1 PB: 1 CGC exhibiting the greatest WHC among all four substrates. Bulk density was greatest with the CGC-amended substrates. Leachate pH tended to increase and electrical conductivity (EC) tended to decrease with increasing irrigation volume. Leachates from the CGC-amended substrates were less acidic and EC tended to be similar or greater than leachates from the 100% PB and 3 PB: 1 PT substrates.
A greenhouse experiment was conducted over two growing seasons to study the physical and mechanical properties of a recycled multilayer plastic cover and its effect on the production of greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Two experimental greenhouses were constructed, one covered with recycled multilayer film and the other with conventional virgin monolayer film. The air temperature under both covers was similar; the soil temperature in the recycled multilayer house was a few degrees lower in the afternoon hours to midnight than in the virgin monolayer house. The recycled multilayer film retained its strength and elasticity over a useful service life of 7 months (one growing season), after which severe degradation occurred as manifested by a 50% loss of elongation at break. During the useful lifetime of the film, haziness, light scattering, and light transmission of the recycled film was similar to the conventional film. The thermal analysis of the recycled film revealed a low stability against thermo-oxidative degradation and the infrared analysis indicated the presence of a measurable amount of degradation products, mainly carbonyl groups, in the recycled film in comparison with conventional film. During the useful lifetime of recycled film, yield components of the tomato crop were identical to the conventional film in both growing seasons. In conclusion, waste plastic recycling offers an attractive solution to nuisance environmental problems. However, the useful lifetime of recycled films needs to be improved.
About 33% of all irrigated lands worldwide are affected by varying degrees of salinity and sodicity. Soil with an electrical conductivity (EC) of the saturated extract >4 dS·m−1 is considered saline, but some horticultural crops are negatively affected if salt concentrations in the rooting zone exceed 2 dS·m−1. Salinity effects on plant growth are generally osmotic in nature, but specific toxicities and nutritional balances are known to occur. In addition to the direct toxic effects of Na salts, Na can negatively impact soil structure. Soil with exchangeable sodium percentages (ESPs) or saturated extract sodium absorption ratios (SARs) > 15 are considered sodic. Sodic soils tend to deflocculate, become impermeable to water and air, and puddle. Many horticultural crops are sensitive to the deterioration of soil physical properties associated with Na in soil and irrigation water. This review summarizes important considerations in managing saline and sodic soils for producing horticultural crops. Economically viable management practices may simply involve a minor, inexpensive modification of cultural practices under conditions of low to moderate salinity or a more costly reclamation under conditions of high Na.
Composting of municipal solid waste (MSW) has received renewed attention as a result of increasing waste disposal costs and the environmental concerns associated with using landfills. Sixteen MSW composting facilities are currently operating in the United States, with many more in the advanced stages of planning. A targeted end use of the compost is for horticultural crop production. At the present time, quality standards for MSW composts are lacking and need to be established. Elevated heavy metal concentrations in MSW compost have been reported; however, through proper sorting and recycling prior to composting, contamination by heavy metals can be reduced. Guidelines for safe metal concentrations and fecal pathogens in compost, based on sewage sludge research, are presented. The compost has been shown to be useful in horticultural crop production by improving soil physical properties, such as lowering bulk density and increasing water-holding capacity. The compost can supply essential nutrients to a limited extent; however, supplemental fertilizer, particularly N, is usually required. The compost has been used successfully as a sphagnum peat substitute for container media and as a seedbed for turf production. High soluble salts and B, often leading to phytotoxicity, are problems associated with the use of MSW compost. The primary limiting factor for the general use of MSW compost in horticultural crop production at present is the lack of consistent, high-quality compost.
Paclobutrazol drench applications of 0, 2, and 4 mg a.i./pot were applied to `Pacino' potted sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.) and `Red Pigmy' tuberous rooted dahlias (Dahlia variabilis Willd.) grown in substrates containing 50%, 60%, 70%, or 80% (by volume) sphagnum peat or coir, with the remainder being perlite, to study the efficacy of paclobutrazol (Bonzi). Potted sunflower plant height differed significantly for peat- and coir-based substrates, with greater plant height being observed in coir-based substrates. Plant diameter was significantly greater at higher percentages of peat or coir in the substrate at 2 and 4 mg of paclobutrazol. Inflorescence diameter also was significantly decreased as paclobutrazol concentration increased. When the percent of height control from the untreated plants for potted sunflower was compared between coir and peat-based substrates, the percent height reduction was similar for peat- and coir-based substrates at 2 mg of paclobutrazol and height control was greater at 4 mg of paclobutrazol in coir-based substrates. The differences in plant growth observed in peat- and coir-based substrates can be attributed to differences in physical properties of these substrates. Dahlia plant height, diameter, and number of days until anthesis were not influenced by substrate type or percentage. However, dahlia growth was significantly reduced as paclobutrazol concentration increased. Coir-based substrates did not reduce the activity of paclobutrazol drenches compared to peat-based substrates, although to compensate for the greater amount of plant growth in coir-based substrates, paclobutrazol concentrations may need to be increased slightly to achieve a similar plant height as with peat-based substrates.
. Components in volumetric percentage of Canadian peat- and Florida peat-based substrates substituted by cowpeat. z Determination of physical and chemical properties. The physical properties of the substrates, including bulk density, total porosity, air space
formulated to achieve desirable physical and chemical properties. There are many different substrate formulations used for floriculture crops, and thus there is not a universal substrate formulation. Most research on potting substrate has focused on the