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microenvironment. The plants were cultivated in a greenhouse at the Controlled Environment Agricultural Center, University of Arizona ( Table 2 ). Temperature and relative humidity measures for each trial represent means derived from eight individual stations
extended to Controlled Environment Agriculture Program and EuroFresh Farms for the technical and financial support.
Multilayer vertical production systems using sole-source (SS) lighting can be used for the production of microgreens; however, traditional SS lighting methods can consume large amounts of electrical energy. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) offer many advantages over conventional light sources, including high photoelectric conversion efficiencies, narrowband spectral light quality (LQ), low thermal output, and adjustable light intensities (LIs). The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of SS LEDs of different light qualities and intensities on growth, morphology, and nutrient content of Brassica microgreens. Purple kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea L. var. gongylodes L.), mizuna (Brassica rapa L. var. japonica), and mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. ‘Garnet Giant’] were grown in hydroponic tray systems placed on multilayer shelves in a walk-in growth chamber. A daily light integral (DLI) of 6, 12, or 18 mol·m−2·d−1 was achieved from commercially available SS LED arrays with light ratios (%) of red:green:blue 74:18:8 (R74:G18:B8), red:blue 87:13 (R87:B13), or red:far-red:blue 84:7:9 (R84:FR7:B9) with a total photon flux (TPF) from 400 to 800 nm of 105, 210, or 315 µmol·m−2·s−1 for 16 hours. Regardless of LQ, as the LI increased from 105 to 315 µmol·m−2·s−1, hypocotyl length (HL) decreased and percent dry weight (DW) increased for kohlrabi, mizuna, and mustard microgreens. With increasing LI, leaf area (LA) of kohlrabi generally decreased and relative chlorophyll content (RCC) increased. In addition, nutrient content increased under low LIs regardless of LQ. The results from this study can help growers to select LIs and LQs from commercially available SS LEDs to achieve preferred growth characteristics of Brassica microgreens.
Abstract
‘Salad Bowl’ and ‘Waldmann’s Green’ leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) were exposed to photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) of 444 or 889 µmol s–1m–2 for 20 hours day–1 under a diurnal temperature regime of 25°C days/15° nights or 20° days/15° nights. Leaf dry weight of both cultivars was highest under the high PPFD/warm temperature regime and lowest under the low PPFD/cool temperature regime. ‘Waldmann’s Green’ yielded more than did ‘Salad Bowl’ at 889 µmol s–1m–2 and 25° days/20° nights. Under high PPFD, both cultivars yielded better with 25° days/25° nights than with 25° days/20° nights, although relative growth rates were the same under both temperature regimes.
The term controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) was first introduced in the 1960s and refers to an intensive approach for controlling plant growth and development by capitalizing on advanced horticultural techniques and innovations in technology
Previous research has shown high-quality annual bedding plant seedlings can be produced in controlled environments using light-emitting diode (LED) sole-source lighting (SSL). However, when only red and blue radiation are used, a delay in time to flower may be present when seedlings of some long-day species are subsequently finished in a greenhouse. Thus, our objective was to evaluate the effects of various radiation qualities and intensities under SSL on the morphology, nutrient uptake, and subsequent flowering of annual bedding plant seedlings with a long-day photoperiodic response. Coreopsis (Coreopsis grandiflora ‘Sunfire’), pansy (Viola ×wittrockiana ‘Matrix Yellow’), and petunia (Petunia ×hybrida ‘Purple Wave’) seedlings were grown at radiation intensities of 105, 210, or 315 µmol·m−2·s−1, achieved from LED arrays with radiation ratios (%) of red:blue 87:13 (R87:B13), red:far-red:blue 84:7:9 (R84:FR7:B9), or red:green:blue 74:18:8 (R74:G18:B8). Four-week-old seedlings were subsequently transplanted and grown in a common greenhouse environment. Stem caliper, root dry mass, and shoot dry mass of seedlings generally increased for all three species as the radiation intensity increased from 105 to 315 µmol·m−2·s−1, regardless of radiation quality. Similarly, stem length of all three species was generally shorter as the radiation intensity increased. Macro- and micronutrient concentrations were also generally lower as the radiation intensity increased for all three species. Pansy seedlings grown under R84:FR7:B9 flowered an average of 7 and 5 days earlier than those under R87:B13 and R74:G18:B8, respectively. These results provide information regarding the specific radiation parameters from commercially available LEDs necessary to produce high-quality seedlings under SSL, with radiation intensity appearing to be the dominant factor in determining seedling quality. Furthermore, the addition of far-red radiation can reduce time to flower after transplant and allow for a faster greenhouse turnover of some species with a long-day photoperiodic response.
High-quality young plant production in northern latitudes requires supplemental lighting (SL) to achieve a recommended daily light integral (DLI) of 10 to 12 mol·m−2·d−1. High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps have been the industry standard for providing SL in greenhouses. However, high-intensity light-emitting diode (LED) fixtures providing blue, white, red, and/or far-red radiation have recently emerged as a possible alternative to HPS lamps for greenhouse SL. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to 1) quantify the morphology and nutrient concentration of common and specialty bedding plant seedlings grown under no SL, or SL from HPS lamps or LED fixtures; and 2) determine whether SL source during propagation or finishing influences finished plant quality or flowering. The experiment was conducted at a commercial greenhouse in West Lafayette, IN. Seeds of New Guinea impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri ‘Divine Blue Pearl’), French marigold (Tagetes patula ‘Bonanza Deep Orange’), gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii ‘Terracotta’), petunia (Petunia ×hybrida ‘Single Dreams White’), ornamental millet (Pennisetum glaucum ‘Jester’), pepper (Capsicum annuum ‘Hot Long Red Thin Cayenne’), and zinnia (Zinnia elegans ‘Zahara Fire’) were sown in 128-cell trays. On germination, trays were placed in a double-poly greenhouse under a 16-hour photoperiod of ambient solar radiation and photoperiodic lighting from compact fluorescent lamps providing a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 2 µmol·m−2·s−1 (ambient conditions) or SL from either HPS lamps or LED fixtures providing a PPFD of 70 µmol·m−2·s−1. After propagation, seedlings were transplanted and finished under SL provided by the same HPS lamps or LED fixtures in a separate greenhouse environment. Overall, seedlings produced under SL were of greater quality [larger stem caliper, increased number of nodes, lower leaf area ratio (LAR), and greater dry mass accumulation] than those produced under no SL. However, seedlings produced under HPS or LED SL were comparable in quality. Although nutrient concentrations were greatest under ambient conditions, select macro- and micronutrient concentrations also were greater under HPS compared with LED SL. SL source during propagation and finishing had little effect on flowering and finished plant quality. Although these results indicate little difference in plant quality based on SL source, they further confirm the benefits gained from using SL for bedding plant production. In addition, with both SL sources producing a similar finished product, growers can prioritize other factors related to SL installations such as energy savings, fixture price, and fixture lifespan.
Greenhouses that are well sealed can result in carbon dioxide (CO2) drawdown and suppressed plant growth. While growers can add supplemental CO2, it is unknown how supplemental CO2 fits within the framework of sustainable crop production in greenhouses. In this study, supplemental CO2 was used in combination with reduced temperatures to evaluate the productivity of ‘Grand Rapids’ lettuce (Latuca sativa) compared with a traditionally maintained, warmer, and well-insulated greenhouse without supplemental CO2 at a commercial facility. Simulations using Virtual Grower software based on identical greenhouses compared fuel use and carbon (C) consumed because of heating and CO2 supplementation. Models were verified with measurements in a well-sealed commercial greenhouse; CO2 quickly decreased to below 300 ppm in a nonsupplemented greenhouse containing plants. Supplemental CO2 boosted total leaf number and mass of lettuce even though temperatures were maintained 3 °F lower in elevated CO2 than in the traditional management scenario. Maintaining a cooler greenhouse but adding CO2 decreased total carbon (C) consumed (by combined fuel use and CO2 supplementation) by 7% during the 3-month season that required a well-sealed greenhouse. Additionally, fuel savings because of lower temperature set points paid for the cost of adding CO2. The use of CO2 enrichment should be considered as a tool in sustainable systems when its use can counteract the plant growth and development reductions brought on by lowered temperatures.
Multilayer vertical production systems using sole-source (SS) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be an alternative to more traditional methods of microgreens production. One significant benefit of using LEDs is the ability to select light qualities that have beneficial impacts on plant morphology and the synthesis of health-promoting phytochemicals. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify the impacts of SS LEDs of different light qualities and intensities on the phytochemical content of brassica (Brassica sp.) microgreens. Specifically, phytochemical measurements included 1) total anthocyanins, 2) total and individual carotenoids, 3) total and individual chlorophylls, and 4) total phenolics. Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes), mustard (Brassica juncea ‘Garnet Giant’), and mizuna (Brassica rapa var. japonica) were grown in hydroponic tray systems placed on multilayer shelves in a walk-in growth chamber. A daily light integral (DLI) of 6, 12, or 18 mol·m−2·d−1 was achieved from SS LED arrays with light ratios (percent) of red:blue 87:13 (R87:B13), red:far-red:blue 84:7:9 (R84:FR7:B9), or red:green:blue 74:18:8 (R74:G18:B8) with a total photon flux from 400 to 800 nm of 105, 210, or 315 µmol·m−2·s–1 for 16 hours, respectively. Phytochemical measurements were collected using spectrophotometry and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Regardless of light quality, total carotenoids were significantly lower under increasing light intensities for mizuna and mustard microgreens. In addition, light quality affected total integrated chlorophyll with higher values observed under the light ratio of R87:B13 compared with R84:FR7:B9 and R74:G18:B8 for kohlrabi and mustard microgreens, respectively. For kohlrabi, with increasing light intensities, the total concentration of anthocyanins was greater compared with those grown under lower light intensities. In addition, for kohlrabi, the light ratios of R87:B13 or R84:FR7:B9 produced significantly higher anthocyanin concentrations compared with the light ratio of R74:G18:B8 under a light intensity of 315 µmol·m−2·s−1. Light quality also influenced the total phenolic concentration of kohlrabi microgreens, with significantly greater levels for the light ratio of R84:FR7:B9 compared with R74:G18:B8 under a light intensity of 105 µmol·m−2·s−1. However, the impact of light intensity on total phenolic concentration of kohlrabi was not significant. The results from this study provide further insight into the selection of light qualities and intensities using SS LEDs to achieve preferred phytochemical content of brassica microgreens.
Biopharmaceutical protein production is a new application of plant biotechnology. Nevertheless, there is limited information for potential protein productivity in commercial production operation. The objective of this study was to characterize the growth and development as well as fruit and protein productivities of transgenic tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants in comparison with two nontransgenic reference cultivars under greenhouse conditions with commercially adopted cultural practice. Transgenic tomatoes expressing a predominant antigen fusion protein, F1-V, against plague were used as a model system. Three types of tomatoes were grown for this study: 1) a transgenic T 2 line, ‘F1-V’; 2) the background wild-type cultivar, TA234; and 3) a commercial greenhouse cultivar well adopted in North America, Durinta. All plants were grown hydroponically in a greenhouse equipped with heating and evaporative cooling systems for 24 to 30 weeks. When comparing ‘F1-V’ with ‘TA234’, there were no significant differences in growth, cumulative fruit yield, fruit total soluble protein (TSP) concentration, nor cumulative TSP production between the two genotypes. Although there was a difference in plant leaf morphology, this suggests that the transformation event did not affect the key traits of biopharmaceutical protein production. When comparing ‘F1-V’ with ‘Durinta’, ‘Durinta’ yielded more fruit than did ‘F1-V’, although final vegetative biomass of the two genotypes was not significantly different. Cumulative fruit yield per plant of ‘Durinta’ for 13 weeks of harvest was almost twice that of ‘F1-V’. However, TSP concentration of fruits of ‘Durinta’ was only 12% to 34% of that of ‘F1-V’, making the estimated cumulative TSP production by fruits approximately half that of ‘Durinta’. Our results suggest that biomass productivity is not necessarily the high-priority trait in selecting cultivars for high-value protein production and that protein concentration of fruits may be an important factor.