Abstract
Ca2+ content in cell wall-middle lamella (CW–ML) areas of outer and inner pericarp, placenta, and gel parenchyma of ripening tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cvs. Celebrity and Jumbo) and mesocarp of ripening peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch cv. Georgia Belle] was determined by energy dispersive (EDS) X-ray microanalysis. Ca2+ increased from 1.50 to 6.95 mg·g–1 dry weight in CW–ML of outer pericarp and 0.98 to 2.60 mg·g–1 dry weight in CW–ML of inner pericarp during ripening. Ca2+ content remained constant in tomato placenta and peach mesocarp, and was undetectable in tomato gel parenchyma throughout ripening. CW–ML of peach mesocarp had lower Ca2+ content than tomato pericarp and placenta at all ripening stages, but total peach uronic acid content was 2.5 times greater. Pectin methylesterase (PME) activity increased in tomato pericarp as fruit ripened, but remained low and unchanged in placenta and gel parenchyma. PME treatment of pericarp increased amounts of CW–ML Ca2+ in the breaker stage but not in the green mature stage. The results indicate that increased amounts of Ca2+ are bound to CW–ML of tomato pericarp as ripening occurs but not in placenta or peach mesocarp. Pectin deesterification and wall softening during ripening may in part be factors that control the presence and amount of CW–ML Ca2+.
) and polygalacturonase (PG), which are induced in the fruit abscission zone where they catalyze the breakdown of the middle lamellae and cell walls and promote fruit drop ( Bonghi et al., 2000 ; Ward et al., 1999 ). 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), a
and activity of enzymes associated with cell wall degradation such as β -1,4-glucanase (cellulase or EG) and polygalacturonase (PG) ( Bonghi et al., 2000 ; Roberts et al., 2002 ), which causes the middle lamellae of abscission zone cells to dissolve
; Patterson and Bleecker, 2004 ). Concomitant with increased ethylene production is increased expression of genes and activity of enzymes associated with cell wall degradation such as β-1,4-glucanase (cellulase or EG) and polygalacturonase (PG) ( Bonghi et al
Abstract
Normal and collapsed juice vesicles were removed from stored late-harvested grapefruit segments (Citrus paradisi Macf. cv. Marsh) and the cell wall anatomy of epidermal and internal parenchyma was compared with light, scanning electron, and transmission electron microscopy. Normal juice vesicles were turgid and elongate, and epidermal cells and internal parenchyma were intact. Collapsed juice vesicles appeared flattened, and internal parenchyma were compressed. Cell wall thickening occurred in internal parenchyma and single or clustered epidermal cells of collapsed vesicles. Cell walls of the same cells in normal vesicles were thin. Epidermal and internal parenchyma cell walls of collapsed vesicles were 10 to 50 to 10 to 20 times the thickness, respectively, of corresponding normal cell walls. Lignin was detected in thickened cell walls of epidermal and internal parenchyma of collapsed vesicles. The results suggest that cell wall synthesis in vesicles is a symptom of section drying in grapefruit.
`Golden Delicious' apples (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) were pressure-infiltrated after harvest with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, or 4% CaCl2 solutions (w/v) and the chemical composition of the cell wall of the cortical tissue 2 to 4 mm under the epidermis was studied. The mineral composition of the control cell wall (0% CaCl2) was not affected by the pressure infiltration process. In addition, no significant change was noticed in cell wall associated protein, uronic acid, total polysaccharides, or non-cellulosic neutral sugar contents except for xylose and rhamnose, which decreased (-25%) and increased (+20%), respectively. When apples were infiltrated with CaCl2, Ca content of the cell wall increased and maximum accumulation was achieved with a 2% CaCl2 solution. Calcium infiltration also induced a two-fold increase in Na, a 27% decrease in P, and a 40% decrease in protein content. These data suggest that chemical changes occurring after Ca infiltration are not related to pressure infiltration alone, but are mainly due to the Ca accumulation in the cell wall after pressure infiltration of CaCl2 solutions. Saturation of the available binding sites for Ca occurred in the cell wall when fruit were infiltrated with 2% CaCl2, as no further significant changes in the cell wall chemical composition was detected in fruits infiltrated with 3% or 4% CaCl2.
Calcium is an important constituent of the cell wall and plays roles in maintaining firmness of fruit and reducing postharvest decay. The modification of the cell wall is believed to be influenced by calcium that interacts with acidic pectic polymers to form cross-bridges. Infiltrating apples with CaCl2 has been suggested as an effective postharvest treatment for increasing the calcium content. Three different methodologies were used to analyze the effects of calcium on the cell walls: 1) nickel staining of polygalacturonate on free-hand sections, 2) cationic gold labeling of anionic binding sites in the cell walls, and 3) analytical detection of calcium ions (40Ca, 44Ca) using a secondary ion mass spectrometry. The combination of these methods allowed us to directly visualize the cellular features associated with the infiltration of calcium. Treatment resulted in significant enrichment in the cell wall of the pericarp, transformed the acidic pectins in calcium pectates, and resulted in new calcium cross-bridges. Evidence now suggests that exogenously applied calcium affects the cell wall by enhancing its strength and reinforcing adhesion between neighbor cells; therefore, calcium infiltration delays fruit degradation.
Changes in texture, cell wall structure and composition during storage of Ca-treated and untreated `Golden Delicious' apple fruit (Malus domestics Borkh.) were investigated. The cell wall region of Ca-treated fruit showed no swelling during storage and cell-to-cell contact was maintained, whereas regions of the middle lamella in untreated tissue stained lightly, appeared distended, and eventually separated. In control fruit, microfibril orientation was lost in distended regions of the cell wall, especially in the outer wall region adjacent to the middle lamella. Furthermore, the middle lamella was fenestrated and in some cases was completely degraded. These changes during storage of control fruit were accompanied by a decrease in arabinose and galactose moieties of the cell wall and an increase in soluble pectin. Calcium treatment of fruit inhibited solubilization of polyuronide and arabinose moieties and reduced the loss in galactose content during storage. Tensile strength and firmness were positively correlated to Ca content of the fruit cortex. Excessive tensile stress caused tissue failure in control fruit when cells of the cortical tissue separated at the middle lamella. In contrast, cylinders of Ca-treated fruit fractured through cortical cell walls.
Abstract
Cell wall-degrading enzymes were extracted from the cell wall free space of mesocarp tissue from immature almonds [Prunus dulcis(Mill.)D.A. Webb, ‘Nonpareil’]. The activities of several of these enzymes were found to correlate with the development of gum ducts in this tissue. Polygalacturonase (EC 3.2.1.15) and 1,3-β-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.39) activities rose sharply at, or just prior to, the early schizogenous stage of duct initiation, while increases in α-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.22), β-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23), α-arabinosidase (EC 3.2.1.55), and α-mannosidase (EC 3.2.1.24) activities were correlated with the later lysigenous stage of duct formation. Cell wall analysis of almond mesocarp tissue sampled the week preceding gum duct formation determined that the predominant noncellulosic sugars present in the mesocarp cell walls are arabinose, galactose, xylose, and glucose, with smaller amounts of rhamnose and mannose also present. The walls also contain a high percentage of galacturonic acid and trace amounts of glucuronic acid. Methylation analysis of the cell walls confirmed that many of the specific glycosidic linkages that are cleaved by the enzymes tested are present in the mesocarp cell walls immediately prior to gum duct formation.
Various species and cultivars of citrus were studied to determine the relationship between texture and cell wall polysaccharide content of fruit flesh. Among those tested cultivars, navel orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) and hassaku (C. hassaku Hort. ex Tanaka) were firmest, `Fukuhara orange' (C. sinensis Osbeck) was intermediate, and satsuma mandarin (C. unshiu Marc.) was softest. There was a 3-fold difference in firmness among the 12 citrus cultigens measured. Cohesiveness values ranged from 0.30 to 0.49 and were not correlated with fruit firmness. Sugar content in each cell wall fraction was highest in the water and EDTA fractions, followed by the hemicellulose fraction, and was lowest in the cellulose fraction. Correlation coefficients between firmness and sugar content ranged from 0.69 to 0.88 and were highest in the cellulose fraction. This study suggests that firmness of fruit flesh among the cultigens is influenced by cell wall polysaccharide composition. Chemical name used: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).