Completely enclosed screen houses can physically exclude contact between the asian citrus psyllid [ACP (Diaphorina citri)] and young, healthy citrus (Citrus sp.) trees and prevent huanglongbing (HLB) disease development. The current study investigated the use of antipsyllid screen houses on plant growth and physiological parameters of young ‘Ray Ruby’ grapefruit (Citrus ×paradisi) trees. We tested two coverings [enclosed screen house and open-air (control)] and two planting systems (in-ground and container-grown), with four replications arranged in a split-plot experimental design. Trees grown inside screen houses developed larger canopy surface area, canopy surface area water use efficiency (CWUE), leaf area index (LAI) and LAI water use efficiency (LAIWUE) relative to trees grown in open-air plots (P < 0.01). Leaf water transpiration increased and leaf vapor pressure deficit (VPD) decreased in trees grown inside screen houses compared with trees grown in the open-air plots. CWUE was negatively related to leaf VPD (P < 0.01). Monthly leaf nitrogen concentration was consistently greater in container-grown trees in the open-air compared with trees grown in-ground and inside the screen houses. However, trees grown in-ground and inside the screen houses did not experience any severe leaf N deficiencies and were the largest trees, presenting the highest canopy surface area and LAI at the end of the study. The screen houses described here provided a better growing environment for in-ground grapefruit because the protective structures accelerated young tree growth compared with open-air plantings while protecting trees from HLB infection.
The evolution of plastic uses (excluding glazing) in the production of greenhouse vegetables is presented. Plastics are used in almost every aspect of crop production, including providing a barrier to the soil, lining crop production troughs, holding soil and soilless media, and providing a nutrient film channel. Irrigation systems have become very elaborate, with various plastic products used to transport water and nutrients and to provide a means of emitting nutrient solution to the crop. The greenhouse environment is managed from several plastic components, including air distribution tubes, shade materials, and energy curtains. Plastics are now common in greenhouse vegetable crop training, insect monitoring, postharvest handling, storage, and marketing.
“Float-bed” (FB) is a simple hydroponic system used by the tobacco industry for transplant production. “Ebb-and-flood” (EF) is a modified FB system with periodic draining of the bed to limit water availability and control plant growth. Field-bed cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. gp. Capitata) transplant production was compared with FB, EF, and overhead-irrigated plug-tray greenhouse systems. Plants were produced in May and June and transplanted in a field near Blacksburg, Va., in June and July of 1994 and 1995, respectively. Beds for FB and EF production consisted of galvanized metal troughs (3.3 × 0.8 × 0.3 m) lined with a double layer of 0.075-mm-thick black plastic film. In 1994, both EF and FB seedlings were not hardened before transplanting, were severely stressed after transplanting, and had higher seedling mortality compared with plants from other systems. Plug-tray transplants showed the greatest increase in leaf area following transplanting and matured earlier than seedlings produced in other systems. In 1995, EF- and FB-grown cabbage plants were hardened by withholding water before transplanting, and seedlings had greater fresh mass and leaf area than plug-tray or field-bed seedlings 3.5 weeks after transplanting. Less succulent cabbage transplants were grown in EF and FB systems containing 66 mg·L-1 N (40% by nitrate) and 83 mg·L-1 K. Compared with the FB system, the EF system allowed control of water availability, which slowed plant growth, and increased oxygen concentration in the root zone. Both EF and FB systems are suitable for cabbage transplant production.
Host nutritional variables were evaluated for their effects on the severity of crown and root rot of tomato caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) seedlings (cv. Bonnie Best) were grown in a pathogen-infested, soilless rockwool system in the greenhouse and were fertilized with a nutrient solution that was amended with macro- and microelements at various rates. Disease was evaluated after 2 weeks using an index of 0 to 4, and plant fresh weight was measured. Regression analysis indicated that disease severity was significantly increased by ammonium-nitrogen [NH4Cl, (NH4)6Mo7O24, and (NH4)2SO4], NaH2PO4·H2O, Fe-EDDHA, MnSO4, MoO3, and ZnSO4·7H2O. Disease severity was reduced by nitrate-nitrogen [Ca(NO3)2·4H2O] and CuSO4·H2O. Low rates of NH4NO3 (39 to 79 mg·L-1 N) reduced disease, but rates above 100 mg·L-1 N increased it. Disease was not affected by MgSO4·7H2O. In all cases, plant growth was inversely related to disease severity. Mineral fertilizers had no effect on nutrient solution pH. This information sheds new light on environmental factors that influence plant-pathogen interactions, and may be applied to develop a management strategy for Fusarium crown and root rot based on host nutrition.
Sweet corn (Zea mays L.) cultivars containing the shrunken-2 (sh2 ) gene have superior kernel quality but often germinate poorly and display poor seedling vigor. The transplanting of sh2 sweet corn was investigated as a method to improve stand establishment and hasten maturity. Three-week-old plants (sh2 cv. Krispy King) were raised in 200-cell polystyrene trays in either plug-trays (PT), float beds (FB), or ebb-and-flood (EF) production systems and compared with direct-seeded (DS) controls for transplant quality, successful establishment, and early harvest. In 1994, when plants were established in early June, PT plants matured 1 week earlier than DS and FB plants, which had similar mean times to harvest. In 1995, when field planting occurred in July, all plants flowered prematurely when only 60 cm tall. In 1996, the experiment was begun in early May, and survival of all transplants was >85% vs. 54% for DS plants. In 1996, transplants matured 10 to 13 days earlier than DS plants, however, >90% of DS plants produced marketable ears vs. 63%, 49%, and 44% of EF, FB, and PT plants, respectively. The DS plants were also taller with better root development than transplants in all years. Transplants produced smaller, lower-quality ears than did DS plants, thus nullifying the benefits of greater plant populations and earlier maturity. The EF system produced high-quality seedlings because of the greater control of water availability during seedling development. In some areas, the increased value of early sh2 sweet corn may be worth the additional cost of transplanting and greater percentage of unmarketable ears.
We recently showed that spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) transplants produced under a short photoperiod and low air temperature were characterized by a delay of bolting and short flower-stalk length at harvest (Chun et al., 2000a). The present study was conducted to determine whether these changes are caused by the short photoperiod itself or by the lower integrated photosynthetic photon flux (IPPF). Shoot and root dry weights of transplants increased significantly with increasing IPPF, but were not affected by a change in the photoperiod. However, the floral development indices of transplants were significantly greater under a 16-than under a 10- or 13-hours/day photoperiod, but were not affected by a change in IPPF. The percentage of bolted plants 3 days after transplanting (DAT) increased significantly with increasing photoperiod (from 0% at 10 hours/day to more than 85% at 16 hours/day). Flower-stalk length increased with increasing photoperiod (e.g., at 14 DAT, from 15 mm at the shorter photoperiods to 80 mm at 16 hours/day), but was not affected by a change in IPPF. These results show that the delay of bolting that occurs when the photoperiod is reduced during transplant production is due to the delay of floral development and not to retarded vegetative growth as a result of reduced IPPF.
Onion is classified as a salt-sensitive crop, though it is found in production on saline soils around the world. While onion flavor intensity has been studied in response to various growing conditions, little is known about its response to salt stress. To understand if NaCl affects growth, flavor development, and mineral content in onion, `Granex 33' plants were grown to maturity with six different concentrations of NaCl ranging from 0 (control) to 125 mm in nutrient solutions. NaCl affected onion fresh weight and altered onion flavor intensity and quality. Plants did not survive the 125 mm NaCl treatments and are not included in the results. As bulb Na+ and Cl- content increased in response to increasing NaCl concentrations, leaf and bulb fresh weight of mature plants decreased. Total bulb S content also decreased with increasing NaCl solution concentrations, while bulb SO4 2- content increasing linearly, indicating that less S was entering the S metabolic stream. Though bulb soluble solids content was not influenced by NaCl concentrations, pungency increased, but only at the highest NaCl concentration. Total flavor precursors and methyl cysteine sulfoxide content increased in response to NaCl, but only at the 100 mm treatment. 1-Propenyl cysteine sulfoxide was generally unresponsive to the salt treatment. Propyl cysteine sulfoxide content decreased then increased in responses to increasing NaCl levels, but was found as a minor flavor precursor. Peptide intermediates measured in the pathway leading to 1-propenyl cysteine sulfoxide and propyl cysteine sulfoxide decreased linearly with increasing NaCl exposure. While NaCl affected onion flavor in this study, severe reductions in growth would prevent onion production under similar saline conditions. For practical purposes, the effects of NaCl on flavor are, therefore, minimal.
Responses of two hydroponically grown marigold species, Tagetes erects L. `pumpkin Crush' and T. patula L. `Janie Yellow', to Mn concentrations of 0.5 mg·liter-1 or 10 mg·liter-1 with KNO3 and Ca(NO3)2 (NO3 source) or NH4N O3 as the N source were investigated. In both species, Mn uptake was enhanced with the NO3 source while reduced with NH4NO3. With Mn supplied at 0.5 mg·liter-1 and NO3 as the N source, T. erects absorbed twice the Mn per gram of dry matter as T. patula. T. erecta accumulated higher concentration of Mn in the shoot than in the root irrespective of the N source. T. patula accumulated higher concentration of Mn in the roots with the NO3 source while NH4NO3 shifted the Mn accumulation to the shoot. Growth of both species was suppressed with 10 mg Mn/liter and the suppression was greater with the NO3 source than with the NH4NO3. These results indicate an interspecific response to Mn concentration as well as an N source influence on the uptake of Mn in marigold grown under hydroponic conditions.
This study evaluated the potential of high photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) from high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, alone or in combination with metal halide (MH) plus quartz iodide (QI) incandescent lamps, to support lettuce growth, with or without N supplementation. Varying exposures to radiation from combined HPS, MH, and QI lamps influenced dry weight gain and photosynthetic pigment content of hydroponically grown `Black-Seeded Simpson' lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings. Cumulative leaf dry weight declined with increasing exposure, up to 20 hours per day, to 660 μmol·m-2·s-1 of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) from HPS lamps concomitant with constant 20 hours per day of 400 m mol·m-2·s-1 from MH + QI lamps. Leaves progressively yellowed with increasing exposure to radiation from the three-lamp combination, corresponding to lower specific chlorophyll content but not to specific carotenoid content. Lettuce grown under 20-hour photoperiods of 400, 473, or 668 μmolm·m-2·s-1 from HPS radiation alone had the highest leaf dry weight at a PPF of 473 μmol·m-2·s-1. Chlorophyll, but not carotenoid specific content, decreased with each incremental increase in PPF from HPS lamps. Doubling the level of N in nutrient solution and supplying it as a combination of NH4 + and NO3 - partially ameliorated adverse effects of high PPF on growth and pigment content relative to treatments using single-strength N as NO3 –.