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The effects of preharvest methyl jasmonate (MJ) application on fruit quality, flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity (ORAC) in black raspberry cv. Jewel (Rubus occidentalis L) were studied under field conditions. Raspberries treated with 0.1 mm methyl jasmonate had 20% higher soluble solids content, 20% higher total sugars, 16% higher fructose, 34% higher glucose and 30% lower titratable acids, 31% lower malic acid and 17% lower citric acid than untreated fruit. El-lagic acid, quercetin 3-glucoside, kaempferol 3-glucoside, kaempferol 3-glucuronide, cyanidin 3-glucoside and cyaniding 3-rutinoside were found in raspberry fruit extract. Cyanidin 3-rutinoside was the most dominant anthocyanin and was the major contributor to antioxidant activity in Jewel raspberries. MJ treatments significantly enhanced the content of anthocyanins by 92%, total phenolics by 53%, flavonoids by 98% and the antioxidant capacities by 74% in the fruit. The ORAC value was positively correlated with anthocyanins and total phenolics. In this study, the correlation coefficient for ORAC (y) vs anthocyanins (x) was 0.977 (y = 0.056x + 27.874), and that for ORAC (y) vs. total phenolics (x) was 0.988.
Two field experiments were carried out in 2022 and 2023 within commercial watermelon fields in Stockton and Modesto, CA, USA. Two Trichoderma-containing products were applied to the grafted and nongrafted watermelon seedlings through tray soaking or field chemigation. All seedlings were mechanically transplanted into a split-split plot design with the Trichoderma product as the main factor and application method (tray soaking and chemigation) as the sub-plot. The sub-sub-factor included three interspecific hybrid squash rootstocks (Cucurbita maxima × Cucurbita moschata) ‘Cobalt’, ‘Flexifort’, and ‘RS841’ that were grafted with the commercial seedless watermelon scion ‘Summer Breeze’. All treatments were replicated four times. Vine health was visually assessed three times, and canopy coverage was assessed for a total of six measurements for each year. Harvest was conducted three times in 2022 and twice in 2023 to analyze yield and quality differences among treatments. Aboveground and root samples from defective plants were taken amid the harvest and shipped to the University of California, Davis Fungal Pathology Diagnostics Research Laboratory for identification of soilborne fungal pathogens to confirm or rule out their involvement in vine declines initially attributed to nonpathogenic factors. The laboratory diagnosis indicated that Macrophomina was morphologically identified from the foot and root isolations of 67% of the submitted nongrafted, non-Trichoderma-biofungicide–treated plants in 2022. Further sequencing results confirmed the primary pathogen, Macrophomina phaseolina, from 50% of those submitted plant samples. In addition, putative Fusarium root and stem rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radices-cucurmerinum) and Falciforme crown rot and decline (Fusarium noneumartii) from runners and roots of nongrafted, noninoculated plants in the 2022 experiment were also reported. However, no significant soilborne fungal pathogens were found in the 2023 experiment. In both trials, the effects of Trichoderma-containing biofungicides and their application methods on preventing vine decline, maintaining canopy coverage, and enhancing fruit yield and quality were not as remarkable as grafting. The average grafting effect contributed to 83% and 53% decrease of vine decline compared with the nongrafted plants in 2022 and 2023. Overall, grafted plants yielded 47.6% and 32.4% more than the nongrafted counterpart in 2022 and 2023, respectively. In addition, grafting exerted predominant influence on fruit firmness and rind thickness. The study results indicated that grafting onto multipathogen resistance watermelon rootstocks serves as an effective production tool to maintain fruit yield, quality, and plant health under both pathogenic and disease-free conditions. Further work is still needed to continue evaluating best practical application protocols of Trichoderma-based biofungicides and other biopesticides to enhance product effectiveness and end users’ confidence in reducing soilborne diseases and reliance on conventional fumigants.
Copper (electrolytically generated or from cupric sulfate) is increasingly used to control diseases and algae in the greenhouse industry. However, there is a shortage of information regarding appropriate management strategies for Cu2+ (Cu) in greenhouse hydroponic production. Three greenhouse studies were conducted to examine the growth and yield responses of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L., Triple 4, red) to the application of Cu in hydroponic production systems. In the first two experiments, plants were grown on rockwool and irrigated with nutrient solutions containing Cu at concentrations of 0.05, 0.55, 1.05, 1.55, and 2.05 mg·L–1. Copper treatments were started either when plants were 32 days old and continued for 4 weeks, or when plants were 11 weeks old and continued for 18 weeks, respectively. In the third experiment, roots of solution cultured pepper seedlings were exposed to Cu (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg·L–1) containing nutrient solutions for 2 hours per day for 3 weeks. Higher Cu treatment initialized when plants were 32 days old significantly reduced plant leaf number, leaf area, leaf biomass, specific leaf area, stem length and shoot biomass. The calculated Cu toxicity threshold was 0.19 mg·L–1. However, when treatment initialized at plants were 11 weeks old, Cu did not have significant effects on leaf chlorophyll content, leaf area or specific leaf area. Copper started to show significant negative effects on leaf biomass and shoot biomass at 1.05 mg·L–1 or higher levels. Copper treatments did not have any significant effect on fruit number, fresh weight or dry weight. Under all the Cu levels, fresh fruit copper contents were lower than 0.95 mg·kg–1 which is below the drinking water standard of 1.3 mg·kg–1. Seedling growth was significantly reduced by exposing roots to Cu (≥1.0 mg·L–1) containing solutions even for only 2 h·d–1.
Trials were conducted in 2011 and 2012 with ‘Aristotle’ bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) grown under different tillage methods and irrigation regimes in organically and conventionally managed production systems. Treatments consisted of strip tillage or plastic mulch in well-watered or water-restricted irrigation regimes. Within organic and conventional production systems, the study was arranged as a split-plot randomized block design with strip tillage or plastic mulch as the main plot and irrigation regime as subplot. Leaf water potential (ΨL), soil penetration resistance (compaction), volumetric water content (VWC), soil temperature, and pepper yield were measured. Soil VWC was greater in strip-tillage plots compared with plastic mulch plots under both well-watered and water-restricted conditions for plots in the organic system in 2011 and conventional system in 2012. In addition, soil VWC was numerically lower, if not always statistically different, in water-restricted plots compared with well-watered plots. The trend of soil temperatures within each production system were similar in 2011 and 2012, with plastic mulch plots having slightly higher soil temperatures than strip tillage, despite using white-on-black plastic mulch. Midday ΨL was affected by water regime, with well-watered plants having a significantly lower ΨL than water-restricted plants; however, there were no effects of irrigation on predawn ΨL. Tillage method and sampling location (between row and within row) significantly interacted to affect soil penetration resistance in 2011 and 2012. There was a significant interaction of tillage by irrigation regime on yield within conventional systems in both years, but not in organically managed plots. In 2011, yield data also indicated that the date at which 50% of marketable fruit were harvested (yield_mid) were later for strip–tillage-grown plants than plastic mulch–treated plants within conventional and organic production systems, respectively.
Electrolytically generated copper is increasingly used to control diseases and algae in the greenhouse industry. However, there is a shortage of information regarding appropriate management strategies for copper in ornamental crop production. The objectives of this study were to characterize the response of three ornamental crops (Dendranthema ×grandiflorum L. `Fina', Rosa ×hybrida L. `Lavlinger', Pelargonium ×hortorum L. `Evening Glow') to different solution levels of Cu2+ (ranging from 0.4 to 40 μm) and to determine the critical levels above which toxic responses became apparent. The following measurements were used to assess the treatments: leaf chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), leaf chlorophyll content, and visible injury of leaf and root. Excessive copper reduced plant root length, root dry weight, total dry weight, root to shoot ratio, leaf area, and specific leaf area in all three species. The critical solution level of Cu2+ that resulted in significantly reduced plant dry weight for chrysanthemum was 5 μm; for miniature rose, 2.4; and for geranium, 8 μm. Plant visible root injury was a more sensitive and reliable copper toxicity indicator than visible leaf injury, leaf chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm, or leaf and stem copper content. Generally, all the species exhibited some sensitivity to Cu2+ in solution culture, with chrysanthemum and miniature rose being most sensitive and geranium being least sensitive. Caution should be taken when applying copper in solution culture production systems.
Expansins are extracellular proteins that are involved in cell wall modifications such as cell wall disassembly, cell separation, and cell expansion. Little is known about expansin gene expression during flower development of wintersweet (Chimonanthus praecox). In the present study, an expansin gene, CpEXP1, was isolated from the wintersweet flower cDNA library through random sequencing; this gene encodes a putative protein of 257 amino acids with the essential features conserved, like in other alpha expansins. The CpEXP1 gene exhibited different transcription levels in different tissues and had a significantly higher expression in flowers than other tissues. It is strongly correlated with the development of the flower. The expression of CpEXP1 increased in the flower buds or whole flowers from Stage 1 to 4 and decreased from Stage 5 to 6 during natural opening. Ethephon (an ethylene releaser) treatment promoted cut flower senescence, whereas 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) (an ethylene perception inhibitor) delayed the process of flower wilting. This result is associated with the concomitant lower transcript levels of CpEXP1 in the ethephon-treated samples as well as the steady expression in the 1-MCP-treated samples compared with that in control flowers. The studies show the interesting observation that the expression of an expansin gene CpEXP1 is correlated with the development of Chimonanthus praecox flowers, the upregulation during flower opening vs. the downregulation during senescence.
The application of diffuse light can potentially improve the homogeneity of light distribution and other microclimatic factors such as temperature inside greenhouses. In this study, diffuse light plastic films with different degrees of light diffuseness (20% and 29%) were used as the south roof cover of Chinese solar greenhouses to investigate the spatial distribution of microclimatic factors and their impacts on the growth and yield of tomato. The horizontal and vertical photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) distributions, air temperature distribution, and leaf temperature distribution inside the canopy, tomato leaf net photosynthesis (Pn), and fruit production during the growth period were determined. The results showed that diffuse light plastic film continuously improved the light distribution in the vertical and horizontal spaces of the crop canopy in terms of light interception and uniformity. A more diffuse light fraction also decreased the air and leaf temperatures of the middle canopy and upper canopy during the summer, thereby promoting the photosynthesis of the tomato plants. Pn of the middle and lower canopies with higher haze film were significantly greater than those with lower haze film (19.0% and 27.2%, respectively). The yields of higher stem density and lower stem density planted tomatoes in the 29% haze compartment were increased by 5.5% and 12.9% compared with 20% in the haze group, respectively. Diffuse light plastic films can improve the homogeneity of the canopy light distribution and increase crop production in Chinese solar greenhouses.
Copper is one of the essential micro-nutrient elements for plants, but when in excess, is toxic to plants and other living organisms. Electrolytically generated copper and cupric sulphate are increasingly used by the greenhouse industry to control diseases and algae in hydroponic systems. However, there is little information regarding appropriate strategies for employing copper in greenhouse crop production. We investigated the physiological responses, growth and production of several ornamental crops (miniature rose, chrysanthemum and geranium) and greenhouse vegetable crops (pepper, cucumber, and tomato) with respect to Cu2+ concentration in the root zone. Tests were conducted using plants grown in nutrient solution, Promix and rockwool. Results showed that phytotoxic levels of Cu2+ were dependent on the crop species and growing substrate. Plants grown in nutrient solution exhibited symptoms of phytotoxicity at lower Cu2+ concentrations than those on the solid substrates. The ability of copper to control Pythium aphanidermatum and green algae was evaluated under both laboratory and greenhouse conditions. Copper was effective in suppressing green algae in nutrient solution, but did not control Pythium effectively. This presentation is a comprehensive summary of the research conducted over the last three years by our group on copper application in greenhouse systems.
Sucrose phosphate synthase [SPS (EC 2.4.1.14)] is thought to play a critical role in sucrose accumulation in muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) fruit. A full-length cDNA clone encoding sucrose phosphate synthase was isolated from muskmelon by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction and rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The clone, designated CmSPS1, contains 3377 nucleotides with an open reading frame of 3162 nucleotides. The deduced 1054 amino acids sequence showed high identities with other plant sucrose phosphate synthases. Northern blot analysis indicated that CmSPS1 was expressed in leaves, stems, and mature fruit, but was not detected in roots or flowers. Moreover, the mRNA accumulation of CmSPS1 started at 25 days after pollination (DAP) and reached highest level in mature fruit. Interestingly, both sucrose content and SPS activity increased dramatically between 20 and 30 DAP during fruit development, suggesting that sucrose accumulation may be linked to the CmSPS1 transcript level in muskmelon fruit.
To determine the nutrient solution copper (Cu2+) level above which Cucumis sativus L. (cucumber, cv. LOGICA F1) plant growth and fruit yield will be negatively affected, plants were grown on rockwool and irrigated with nutrient solutions containing Cu2+ at 0.05, 0.55, 1.05, 1.55, and 2.05 mg·L−1. Copper treatment began when plants were 4 weeks old and lasted for 10 weeks. During this 10-week period, plants were harvested at 3 weeks (short-term) and 10 weeks (long-term) after the start of Cu2+ treatment. Neither visible leaf injury nor negative Cu2+ effect was observed on plant growth (leaf number, leaf area, leaf dry weight, and stem dry weight) after 3 weeks of continuous Cu2+ treatment. However, after 10 weeks of continuous Cu2+ application, cucumber leaf dry weight was significantly reduced by Cu2+ levels 1.05 mg·L−1 or greater; leaf number, leaf area, and stem dry weight were significantly reduced by Cu2+ levels 1.55 mg·L−1 or greater. Copper (Cu2+ levels 1.05 mg·L−1 or greater) also caused root browning. Some plants under the 2.05 mg·L−1 Cu2+ treatment started to wilt after 6 weeks of continuous Cu2+ treatment. Copper treatment did not result in any change in leaf greenness until after Week 9 from the start of the treatments. There was no sign of a negative Cu2+ effect on cucumber fruit numbers after the first 2 weeks of production, but plants under the highest Cu2+ concentration treatment (2.05 mg·L−1) gradually produced fewer cucumber fruit than the control (0.05 mg·L−1) and eventually resulted in lower cucumber yield. Nutrient solution can be treated with 1.05 mg·L−1 of Cu2+ in cucumber production greenhouses; however, it is not recommended to use Cu2+ concentrations 1.05 mg·L−1 or greater continuously long-term (more than 3 weeks). When applying Cu2+, it is suggested that cucumber roots be examined regularly because roots are a better indicator for Cu2+ toxicity than leaf injury.