Search Results

Objectives were 1) to quantify acidic and basic effects on the root zone pH for eight vegetable and herb species grown in peat-based substrate and hydroponic nutrient solution and 2) to determine the applied NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratio expected to have a neutral pH reaction for each species during its vegetative growth phase. In one experiment, plants were grown for 33 days in substrate (70% peat:30% perlite by volume), and were fertilized with a nutrient solution containing 7.14 milli-equivalents (mEq)·L^–1 N and NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratios ranging from 0:100 to 40:60. During the second experiment, the same species were grown in hydroponic nutrient solutions at 7.14 mEq·L^–1 N with NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratios ranging from 0:100 to 30:70, and data were collected over a 6-day period. In substrate, species increased root zone pH when supplied 0:100 solution, except for cucumber, which did not change substrate pH. Increasing the NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratio to 40:60 increased acidity and decreased pH across species. Similar trends were observed in hydroponics, in which the most basic response occurred across species with 0:100, and the most acidic response occurred with 30:70. Arugula was the only species that increased root zone pH with all three NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratios in substrate and hydroponics. In substrate and hydroponics, mEq of acidity (negative) or basicity (positive) produced per gram dry weight gain per plant (mEq·g⁻¹) correlated positively with mEq·g⁻¹ net cation minus anion uptake, respectively, in which greater cation uptake resulted in acidity and greater anion uptake resulted in basicity. In hydroponics, the greatest net anion uptake occurred with 0:100, and increasing the NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratio increased total cation uptake across species. Cucumber had the most acidic effect and required less than 10% of N as NH₄ ⁺-N for a neutral pH over time, arugula was the most basic and required more than 20% NH₄ ⁺-N, and the remaining species had neutral percent NH₄ ⁺-N between 10% and 20% of N. Increasing the NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– ratio decreased Ca²⁺ uptake across all species in hydroponics, which could potentially impact tip burn and postharvest quality negatively. Controlling root zone pH in substrate and hydroponic culture requires regular pH monitoring in combination with NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ^– adjustments and other pH management strategies, such as injecting mineral acid to neutralize irrigation water alkalinity or adjusting the limestone incorporation rate for substrate.

Floriculture species differ in their effect on substrate-pH and the resulting substrate micronutrient availability in container production. The objective was to quantify effects of floriculture plant species on substrate-pH. In a growth chamber factorial experiment, 15 floriculture species were grown in 70%:30% by volume peat:perlite substrate and fertilized with nutrient solutions containing 100 mg·L⁻¹ N and NH₄ ⁺-N:NO₃ ⁻-N nitrogen ratios of 0:100, 20:80, or 40:60. The relationship between substrate-pH and milliequivalents (meq) of acid or base per unit volume of substrate was quantified by titration with hydrated dolomitic lime or HCl. After 33 days, species and solution type effects on substrate-pH and estimated meq of acid or base produced were evaluated. Final substrate-pH ranged from 4.83 for geranium in 40:60 solution to 6.58 for lisianthus in 0:100 solution, compared with an initial substrate-pH of 5.84. This change in substrate-pH corresponded with a net meq of acid or base produced per gram of tissue dry mass gain (NMEQ) ranging across solutions and species from 1.47 of base for lisianthus in the 0:100 solution to 2.10 of acid for coleus in the 40:60 solution. With the 0:100 solution, geranium produced the greatest NMEQ of acid (0.07), whereas lisianthus produced the greatest NMEQ of base (1.47). Because all N in the 0:100 solution was in the NO₃ ⁻ anion form, meq of both anions and cations taken up by plant roots could be calculated based on tissue analysis. With the 0:100 solution, species that took up more anions than cations into plant tissue tended to have a more basic effect on substrate-pH, as would be expected to maintain electroneutrality. Data were used to estimate the percent NH₄ ⁺-N of total N in a nutrient solution that would be neutral (results in no substrate-pH change) for each species. This neutral percent NH₄ ⁺-N of total N ranged from ≈0% (geranium) to 35% (pentas). Species were separated into three clusters using k-means cluster analysis with variables related to NMEQ and anion or cation uptake. Species were clustered into groups that had acidic (geranium and coleus), intermediate (dusty miller, impatiens, marigold, new guinea impatiens, petunia, salvia, snapdragon, and verbena), or basic (lisianthus, pansy, pentas, vinca, and zinnia) effects on substrate-pH. Evaluating the tendency to increase or decrease substrate-pH across a range of floriculture species, and grouping of plants with similar pH effects, could help predict NH₄ ⁺:NO₃ ⁻ ratios for a neutral pH effect and assist growers in managing substrate-pH for container production.

Ornamental bedding plant operations transitioning to leafy greens and herb production must decide whether to invest in new hydroponic equipment or modify existing culture systems for edible crops. In addition, common practices used to increase space-use and production efficiencies during bedding plant production may be modified for hydroponic leafy greens and herbs, such as purchasing large seedlings for transplant. The objective of the first experiment was to evaluate plant growth in a modified and novel shallow aggregate ebb-and-flood (SAEF) system intended for bedding plant growers with an emphasis on comparing yield across four basil (Ocimum basilicum) cultivars grown in the SAEF system to those grown using the traditional nutrient film technique (NFT) and deep water culture (DWC) hydroponic systems. The second experiment objective was to evaluate basil seedling size and the time of transplant to NFT hydroponic systems to determine effects on the final yield. ‘Genovese’ basil seedlings were grown in trays with cell counts of 32, 50, 72, 105, and 162 cells with corresponding root volumes per plant of 98.1, 50.2, 38.5, 19.6, and 16.3 cm³, respectively. Seedlings were transplanted to NFT systems at 14, 21, and 28 days after sowing and were harvested at 35 days. In the first experiment, overall basil shoot fresh and dry weights per plant were intermediate in the SAEF system (90.4 and 8.3 g) compared with the DWC (102.6 and 9.1 g) and NFT (75.8 and 6.6 g) hydroponic systems. In the second experiment, final shoot fresh and dry weight per plant increased as seedling root volume increased from 16.3 cm³ [72.8 and 5.5 g (162-cell tray)] to 98.1 cm³ [148.5 and 12.2 g (32-cell tray)]. Transplanting seedlings at later dates decreased yield across tray size and root volume treatments. Differences in yield between culture systems may have resulted from differences in nutrient supply and availability for plant uptake. Transplant of large seedling plugs to hydroponic culture was not shown to increase space-use efficiency after transplant without compromising yield, likely because root zone factors limited growth during seedling production. Further investigation into maximizing plant growth during seedling production and evaluating the effects of seedling size and transplant practices are needed to determine the potential for increasing space-use and production efficiencies.

Floriculture crop species that are inefficient at iron uptake are susceptible to developing iron deficiency symptoms in container production at high substrate pH. The objective of this study was to compare genotypes of iron-inefficient calibrachoa (Calibrachoa ×hybrid Cerv.) in terms of their susceptibility to showing iron deficiency symptoms when grown at high vs. low substrate pH. In a greenhouse factorial experiment, 24 genotypes of calibrachoa were grown in peat:perlite substrate at low pH (5.4) and high pH (7.1). Shoot dry weight, leaf SPAD chlorophyll index, flower index value, and shoot iron concentration were measured after 13 weeks at each substrate pH level. Of the 24 genotypes, analysis of variance (ANOVA) found that 19 genotypes had lower SPAD and 18 genotypes had reduced shoot dry weight at high substrate pH compared with SPAD and dry weight at low substrate pH. High substrate pH had less effect on flower index and shoot iron concentration than the pH effect on SPAD or shoot dry weight. No visual symptoms of iron deficiency were observed at low substrate pH. Genotypes were separated into three groups using k-means cluster analysis, based on the four measured variables (SPAD, dry weight, flower index, and iron concentration in shoot tissue). These four variables were each expressed as the percent reduction in measured responses at high vs. low substrate pH. Greater percent reduction values indicated increased sensitivity of genotypes to high substrate pH. The three clusters, which about represented high, medium, or low sensitivity to high substrate pH, averaged 59.7%, 42.8%, and 25.2% reduction in SPAD, 47.7%, 51.0%, and 39.5% reduction in shoot dry weight, and 32.2%, 9.2%, and 27.7% reduction in shoot iron, respectively. Flowering was not different between clusters when tested with ANOVA. The least pH-sensitive cluster included all four genotypes in the breeding series ‘Calipetite’. ‘Calipetite’ also had low shoot dry weight at low substrate pH, indicating low overall vigor. There were no differences between clusters in terms of their effect on substrate pH, which is one potential plant iron-efficiency mechanism in response to low iron availability. This experiment demonstrated an experimental and statistical approach for plant breeders to test sensitivity to substrate pH for iron-inefficient floriculture species.

The first objective was to evaluate wood components for differences in nitrogen (N) immobilization and effects on substrate physical properties. The second objective was to evaluate peat substrates amended with pine wood components for effects on plant growth, shoot tissue N, and fertigation practices during production. Substrates consisted of a coarse sphagnum peat blended with four types of processed pine wood at rates of 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% (by volume). For comparison, peat was also blended with an aged pine bark, perlite, and coconut coir. Nitrogen immobilization was measured for individual components, except perlite. Individual components and blended substrates were evaluated for particle size distribution, total air porosity, container capacity, and dry bulk density. In a greenhouse experiment, petunia (Petunia × hybrida Vilm.-Andr.) were grown in hanging basket containers with each substrate blend as well as 100% peat, which served as a nonblended control substrate, and fertilized at each irrigation with 200 mg·L⁻¹ N. Blended component and blend percent interacted in effects on all measured substrate physical properties; however, physical properties of all substrate blends were considered adequate for horticultural purposes. In the laboratory, pine bark immobilized 9% of total N supplied, whereas the remaining pine wood components immobilized <5% of total N. In the greenhouse experiment, blend component influenced shoot growth and flowering, which were greatest for petunia grown in 100% peat. Increasing the blend percent of all components decreased shoot growth and flowering with all blended components. Blended substrates had minimal effects on number of fertigation events, and substrate treatments differed by a maximum of three fertigation events per container over a 56-d period. This study illustrates the challenges of measuring N immobilization because results from the laboratory were not consistent with plant performance in the greenhouse. Increasing blends of each substrate (including perlite) were also observed to interact with fertigation practices and therefore applied N, tissue N, shoot dry weight, and total N uptake. As a practical conclusion from this study, peat incorporated with 60% wood fiber increased the risk of reduced plant growth and N uptake, but this risk was lower as the blend percentage decreased. In addition, other analytical methods to test N immobilization, such as microbial respiration, should be further explored.

Pine (Pinus sp.) wood products have potential to immobilize fertilizer nitrogen (N) and influence plant growth when used in soilless substrates for the production of containerized floriculture crops. Peat substrate was amended with (by volume) 30% pine wood fiber (peat:fiber) during a production phase with fertigation and a simulated consumer retail phase with clear-water irrigation using container-grown ‘Supertunia Vista Bubblegum’ petunia (Petunia ×hybrida). The objective was to evaluate substrate effects on substrate and plant tissue nutrient level and plant growth, with an emphasis on evaluating N immobilization from wood product amendments. Substrates consisting of peat amended with hammer-milled pine wood (peat:wood) or coconut (Cocos nucifera) coir (peat:coir) were used for comparison, and a 100% peat substrate (peat) served as a control. In Expt. 1, amending peat with pine wood fiber had no effect on leaf SPAD chlorophyll index, shoot growth, plant height and width, substrate N, or percent shoot tissue N at the end-of-production. In Expt. 2, plants grown in peat:fiber had reduced flower number, plant height and width, and shoot growth compared with plants grown in the 100% peat control. However, petunia grown in peat:fiber substrates maintained dark-green foliage with high leaf SPAD chlorophyll index values (≥44.4) and ≥45 flowers/plant, and therefore were considered marketable plants. During the production phase in both Expts. 1 and 2, N concentrations remained within the target range for petunia in both the shoot tissue and root-zone for all substrates. In addition, there was no statistical evidence of N immobilization for any substrate blend for either of the N drawdown procedures. In both Expts. 1 and 2, root-zone nutrients became depleted during the consumer phase when irrigation was with clear water (no fertilizer), and petunia developed uniform symptoms of leaf chlorosis and N deficiency. Results of this study indicate that peat amended with 30% pine wood fiber, hammer-milled pine wood, and coconut can be used for production of containerized petunia with minimal effects on plant growth or need to adjust the fertilizer program. However, increasing pine wood to >30% of the substrate volume may require growers to increase fertilization and adjust irrigation practices to compensate for greater risk of N immobilization and changes in substrate physical properties.

The overall goal was to evaluate fertilizer options for greenhouse producers, with or without a plant growth regulator (PGR) application, to improve subsequent performance of container-grown annuals. Petunia (Petunia × hybrida) was the model container-grown crop in simulated production and consumer environments. The first experiment at two locations (New Hampshire and Florida) compared strategies using water-soluble fertilizer [WSF (17N–1.8P–14.1K)], controlled-release fertilizers (CRF), and slow-release fertilizers (SRF) that were either applied throughout or at the end of the 8-week production phase [point of shipping (POS)] for petunia rooted cuttings grown in 8-inch azalea containers. In the subsequent simulated “consumer” phase, container plants were irrigated with clear water (no fertilizer) for 6 weeks. Plant performance [number of flowers, SPAD chlorophyll index, dry weight, and tissue nitrogen (N)] at the end of the consumer phase was improved by top-dressing at POS with either CRF or granular organic fertilizer (both at 2.74 g/container N), or preplant incorporation of either a typical CRF at 4.12 g/container N or a CRF with an additional prill coating to delay initial release (DCT) at 2.74 g/container. There was no carry-over benefit from applying a liquid urea-chain product (1.37 or 2.74 g/container N) or top dressing with granular methylene di-urea (2.74 g/container N), or 400 mg·L^–1 N (0.2 g/container N) from a liquid organic fertilizer at POS. The consumer benefit of applying 400 mg·L^–1 N (0.2 g/container N) from a WSF at POS was increased by supplementing with 235 mg·L^–1 magnesium (Mg) and 10 mg·L^–1 iron (Fe). A second experiment in 10-inch-diameter pots evaluated the effect on consumer performance from providing 200 or 400 mg·L^–1 N of WSF with the PGR paclobutrazol, at the final 1 L/pot irrigation at POS. Application of 3 mg·L^–1 paclobutrazol delayed leaf yellowing and reduced plant height, width, and shoot dry weight during the consumer phase, resulting in a more compact growth habit and higher plant quality compared with plants that received no PGR, regardless of WSF treatment. Addition of supplemental 235 mg·L^–1 Mg and 10 mg·L^–1 Fe to the high rate of WSF and PGR did not improve consumer performance compared with other treatments that included a PGR. Overall, the first experiment demonstrated that the most effective fertilizer strategies require a CRF or SRF that will release nutrients throughout the consumer phase, and that impact of liquid fertilizer options is limited because of lower N supply per container. A single application at POS of a high rate of WSF with supplemental Mg and Fe may have short-term benefits, for example while plants are in a retail environment. Growers should consider combining a residual fertilizer with a PGR application for premium, value-added container annuals.

The recent increased market demand for locally grown produce is generating interest in the application of techniques developed for controlled environment agriculture (CEA) to urban agriculture (UA). Controlled environments have great potential to revolutionize urban food systems, as they offer unique opportunities for year-round production, optimizing resource-use efficiency, and for helping to overcome significant challenges associated with the high costs of production in urban settings. For urban growers to benefit from CEA, results from studies evaluating the application of controlled environments for commercial food production should be considered. This review includes a discussion of current and potential applications of CEA for UA, references discussing appropriate methods for selecting and controlling the physical plant production environment, resource management strategies, considerations to improve economic viability, opportunities to address food safety concerns, and the potential social benefits from applying CEA techniques to UA. Author’s viewpoints about the future of CEA for urban food production are presented at the end of this review.