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- Author or Editor: Martin J. Bukovac x
Abstract
The abscission of maturing fruit is an important process which has not been extensively studied. Earlier reports on fruit abscission in the cherry have stressed premature drop associated with failures in fruit-set (2, 20). With the development of various mechanical harvesting devices and the rapid commercial adoption of machine harvesting (14, 15), attention has now been focused on abscission of mature fruit.
Abstract
I am deeply honored to have been selected to participate in this centennial recognition of the enactment of the Hatch Act signed 100 years ago. I am particularly pleased because my entire educational and professional life has been interwoven with the goals and objectives of this far-reaching concept in agricultural research. Celebrations of this kind, especially centennials, provide opportunities to reflect on accomplishments of the past and to dream of the future.
The importance of spray application and the role of spray additives are reviewed in reference to increasing the effectiveness of plant growth regulators (PGR). The spray application process is composed of a number of interrelated components, from formulation of the active ingredient into a sprayable, bioactive solution (emulsion/suspension), to atomization, delivery, retention, and penetration into the plant tissue. Each of these events is critical to performance of the PGR. Also, each can be affected by spray additives, particularly adjuvants, which may be incorporated in the formulation of the active ingredient or added to the spray mixture. The role of the individual components and effects of spray adjuvants, particularly surfactants and fertilizer adjuvants, on the component processes are discussed.
Abstract
(2-Chloroethyl)phosphonic acid (ethephon) applied as a foliar spray at 250 to 1000 ppm reduced fruit removal force by 30 to 60%, and significantly increased (50 to 300%) the percentage fruit removed by machineharvest in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). The response was more pronounced as time between application and harvest increased, with optimum results between 7 and 14 days before harvest. Fruit quality was equal to or better than that of the control, the greatest effect being a reduction in percentage of bruised fruit and fruit with persisting pedicels. The degree of bruising was directly related to the duration of the shaking period. Efficiency of machine-harvest was markedly increased (20 to 30%) by selectively removing the lower branches and heading back long willowy branches around the periphery of the tree. Excessive leaf abscission and gummosis were common at the 1000 ppm rate and occasionally at the lower rates, particularly when trees were under moisture or disease stress.
Micelles of two nonionic surfactants (Triton X-114 and Neodol 91) were shown by gel filtration chromatography to solubilize nondissociated NAA molecules in aqueous solutions. Micelle solubilization of nonpolar active ingredients in aqueous spray systems alters the distribution of the chemical in the spray solution and may influence chemical deposit formation and penetration characteristics. Chemical names used: 2-(1-naphthyl)acetic acid (NAA), octylphenoxy polyethoxylate-7.5 POE (Triton X-114), linear alcohol (C9-11) polyethoxylate-6 POE (Neodol 91).
Gibberellin A3 (GA) applied to virus-infected sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L., `Montmorency') trees inhibits flower initiation and promotes spur formation. However, response to a given dose may vary. Differential foliar absorption has been suggested as a major source of this variation. Therefore, we studied if surfactants would reduce variation in GA absorption. Uptake through the abaxial surface exceeded that through the adaxial surface by about one order of magnitude (adaxial surface 1.1 vs 7.8% in 1988, 0.7 vs 16.6% in 1989). GA uptake was markedly affected by surfactants. Over a 24-hr uptake period, Activator 90 and Ortho X-77 were most effective (abaxial surface 38.3 and 37.4% in 1989), whereas Regulaid did not affect GA uptake. L-77 significantly depressed absorption (abaxial surface 9.1% in 1989). In addition to the level of uptake, surfactants also changed GA absorption kinetics. Penetration increased linearly over a 96-hr time period when Regulaid was included. However, with Ortho X-77, uptake was rapid initially but levelled off within 96 hr. These findings will be discussed in relation to biological response data obtained in the field experiments.
The effects of selected surfactants and surfactant blends, frequently used in spray application, on deposit formation and foliar absorption of GA3 by sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L. cv. Montmorency) have been investigated. Globular deposits were observed on droplet drying from solutions without surfactants or when the surfactants Activator 90, Tween 20, or Silwet L-77 were present, while annular-shaped deposits were observed with Regulaid, Ortho X-77, and Triton AG-98. Absorption of GA3 without surfactant was 5- and 17-fold higher by the abaxial (8.5% and 20.2% of applied in 1988 and 1989) than adaxial surface (1.6% and 1.2% of applied in 1988 and 1989). Over 24 hours, Ortho X-77 and Activator 90 (45.7% vs. 33.7% in 1988, 42.5% vs. 41.7% in 1989) were most effective in enhancing GA3 penetration through the abaxial surface, followed by Triton AG-98 (38.6% in 1988), Tween 20 (28.6% in 1989), and Regulaid (23.6% in 1988, 16.8% in 1989). Silwet L-77 significantly reduced GA3 uptake (10.7% in 1989) compared with the nonsurfactant control (18.2% in 1989). GA3 uptake increased at a decreasing rate during a 96-hour absorption period when GA3 was applied alone or with Ortho X-77. However, uptake increased linearly with time in the presence of Regulaid, yielding significantly higher GA3 penetration 96 hours after application (44.8%) compared with GA, alone (11.3%) or GA3 with Ortho X-77 (27.7%). GA3 penetration was independent of Tween 20 concentration in the range from 0.0313% to 0.25% but increased with increasing Ortho X-77 concentration (0.0313$%0 to 0.25%) over a 24-hour absorption period. Chemical names used: alkylpolyoxyethylene ether, free fatty acids, isopropanol (Activator 90); alkylarylpolyoxyethyleneglycols, free fatty acids and isopropanol (Ortho X-77); polyoxyethylenepolypropoxypropanol, alkyl 2-ethoxy-ethanol (Regulaid); polyalkyleneoxide modified polydimethylsiloxane copolymers (Silwet L-77); alkylarylpolyethylene glycol (Triton AG-98); polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20); gibberellic acid (GA3).
Water conductance of the cuticle of mature fruit of apple [Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. var. domestica (Borkh.) Mansf., `Golden Delicious' Reinders/`Malling 9' (M.9)], sweet cherry (Prunus avium L., `Sam'/`Alkavo'), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum Fasciculatum Group, `Jive'), and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was de ter mined using excised epidermal segments (consisting of epidermis, hypodermis, and some cell layers of parenchyma) and enzymatically isolated cuticular membranes (CM) from the same sample of fruit. Segments or CM were mounted in diffusion cells and transpiration was monitored gravimetrically. Conductance (m·s-1) was calculated by dividing the flux of water per unit segment or CM area (kg·m-2·s-1) by the difference in water vapor concentration (kg·m-3) across segments or CM. Transpiration through segments and through CM increased with time. Conductance of segments was consistently lower than that of newly isolated CM (3 days or less). Conductance decreased with increasing time after isolation for apple, grape, or sweet cherry CM, and for sweet cherry CM with increasing temperature during storage (5 to 33 °C for 4 days). There was no significant effect of duration of storage of CM on conductance in pepper or tomato fruit. Following storage of CM for more than 30 days, differences in conductance between isolated CM and excised segments decreased in apple, grape, and sweet cherry, but not in pepper or tomato. Use of metabolic inhibitors (1 mm NaN3 or 0.1 mm CCCP), or pretreatment of segments by freezing (-19 °C for 18 hours), or vacuum infiltration with water, had no effect on conductance of apple fruit segments. Our results suggest that living cells present on excised segments do not affect conductance and that epidermal segments provide a useful model system for quantifying conductance without the need for isolating the CM. Chemical names used: sodium azide (NaN3); carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP).
The effects of CPPU [forchlorfenuron, N-(2-chloro-4-pyridinyl)-N-phenylurea] on berry development of Vitis labrusca and V. labrusca × V. vinifera cultivars was evaluated under field conditions. A concentration response was initially established by spraying clusters of `Himrod' at a mean berry diameter of about 5 mm with 0, 5, 10, or 15 mg·L–1 CPPU. Berry enlargement was monitored (16, 30, 44, and 59 days after treatment) during development. Cluster mass, number of berries per cluster, berry mass and firmness, and °Brix were determined at harvest. Berry mass was dramatically increased (2.3 versus about 3.6 g/berry) at harvest by all concentrations of CPPU. Cluster mass and compactness were also increased and berry firmness was linearly related to CPPU concentration (r 2 = 0.997). There was no significant effect on number of berries per cluster (79 to 86). °Brix, rachis necrosis at harvest, and berry abscission after 30 days of refrigerated storage (1 °C) were significantly reduced. Effect of time of CPPU application (0, 5, and 10 mg·L–1) was established by treatment of clusters at mean berry diameters of about 4, 5, 7, and 9 mm. Response was indexed by following berry enlargement at 14, 28, 42, and 56 (maturity) days after treatment. Maximum berry size for both 5 and 10 mg·L–1 was obtained from applications at 4 to 7 mm berry diameter. Relative response of seedless and seeded cultivars was compared by application of CPPU at 0, 5, 10, or 15 mg·L–1 to clusters (4 to 6 mm berry diameter) of seedless `Vanessa' and `Lakemont' and seeded `Concord' and `Niagara'. Bioresponse was determined by a time course of berry enlargement and berry and cluster mass, number of berries per cluster, and rating cluster compactness at maturity. Except for `Lakemont' at the 5 mg·L–1 concentration, CPPU at all concentrations increased seedless berry diameter significantly from the first measurement at 14 through 56 days after application. Berry and cluster mass and cluster compactness were significantly increased in `Vanessa'. In contrast, the only effect of CPPU on the two seeded cultivars was an increase in berry size in `Concord' and an initial increase in berry size 14 days after application in `Niagara'.
The plant cuticle is the prime barrier to penetration of foliar-applied plant growth regulators (PGR). Spray additives of various chemistries are frequently included in a tank mix to increase performance of PGRs. We have reported that urea and ammonium nitrate (AN) enhance transcuticular penetration of 14C-labeled NAA (pKa 4.2) from aqueous droplets (pH 5.2) and their subsequent deposits through enzymatically isolated tomato fruit cuticular membranes (CM). Studies on effects of Triton × surfactants on AN-enhanced NAA penetration showed an additional 25% increase in NAA penetration and the AN:surfactant interaction was significant. Also, some alkylamine hydrochlorides increased NAA penetration. Studies comparing NAA penetration through tomato and pepper fruit and Citrus leaf CM in the presence of 8 mM AN or 8 mM ethylamine HCl showed that all three species exhibited the same trend for penetration at 120 h: ethylamine HCl > AN > NAA only. Comparative NAA penetration for CM of the three species was pepper > Citrus > tomato, with significant differences (P > 0.006) in NAA penetration, as indexed by initial slope and penetration after 120 h. On addition of AN, NAA penetration was greater (range 3% to 40%) for Citrus and pepper CM than tomato CM. When ethylamine HCl was added, NAA penetration through Citrus and pepper CM was less (–37 and –27%, respectively) than tomato CM as measured by the initial slope, but 6% and 11%, respectively, more than tomato CM for penetration after 120 h. The differences in NAA penetration among the three species cannot be explained by cuticle thickness, since pepper and tomato CM are 2.5- to 3.5-fold thicker than Citrus CM. We have suggested that the enhanced NAA penetration mediated by AN and ethylamine HCl (and other alkylamine HCl examined) may be related to their hygroscopic properties leading to greater deposit hydration. The significance of the differences among the species CM and surfactant-enhanced NAA penetration will be discussed, in relation to diffusion in the non-living, non-metabolic plant cuticle.