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Four decades ago, irrigation in much of the southeastern U.S. was considered not sensible economically because of normal rainfall in excess of 1200 mm in some areas. More-recent research has shown that irrigation makes definite economic sense because it can increase production substantially. This is especially true in Florida citrus, where irrigation can increase yield by up to 60%. Drip and microsprinkler irrigation have become popular, and these methods of partial root-zone coverage affect tree water potential and yield. Growing environmental concerns about possible nitrate and pesticide leaching to the groundwater have led to greater emphasis on irrigation management in an area of highly variable rainfall. Rapidly growing population has brought about increased competition for water and greater restrictions on agricultural water use. Reclaimed water, once considered a disposal problem, is now being promoted as a partial solution for periodic water shortages. Discussion will focus on tree response to different irrigation management systems and how agriculture is dealing with greater irrigation restrictions.
Improving our understanding of processes that control and limit nitrogen uptake by citrus can provide a scientific basis for enhancing nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency. Nitrogen uptake dynamics of two rootstock seedlings will be compared to those of young budded trees. Three-month old Swingle citrumelo [Citrus paradisi Macf. × Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf.] and Volkamer lemon (C. volkameriana Ten. & Pasq.) trees were planted in PVC columns filled with a Candler fine sand. Field experiments were conducted using 4-year-old `Hamlin' orange trees [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb.] grafted on `Carrizo' [C. sinensis × Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf.] or on Swingle citrumelo. Trees were either grown in solution culture using 120-L PVC containers or in 900-L PVC tubs filled with a Candler fine sand. Additional trees were planted in the field during Spring 1998. Two lateral roots per tree were trained to grow in slanted, partly burried, 20-L PVC columns filled with a Candler fine sand. Nitrogen uptake from the soil was determined by comparing the residual N extracted by intensive leaching from planted units with that of non-planted (reference) units. With the application of dilute N solutions (7 mg N/L), plants reduced N concentrations to near-zero N concentrations within days. Applying N at higher concentrations (70 or 210 mg N/L) resulted in higher initial uptake rates, increased residual soil N levels, and reduced nitrogen uptake efficiency. Contributions of passive uptake to total nitrogen uptake ranged from less than 5% at soil solution concentrations around 3 ppm N to 20% to 30% at concentrations of 60 ppm N.
The interactive effects of irrigation rate and nitrogen concentration of the irrigation water on the growth of seedlings of two citrus rootstocks were studied. Four-month old seedlings of Swingle citrumelo [Citrus paradisi Macf. × Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf.] and Volkamer lemon (C. volkameriana Ten. & Pasq.) were grown for ≈10 months in square citripots filled with a Candler fine sand. Plants were irrigated at 0.5, 0.75 or 1.0 times the evapotranspiration rate. Irrigation was applied using water containing 0, 7, 21, or 63 ppm nitrogen. Plant growth increased with irrigation rate and nitrogen concentration. Evapotranspiration rates, as determined from weight losses of reference plants, increased with nitrogen rate. Overall plant growth and weekly evaporation rates were greater with Volkamer than with Swingle. Leaf senescence of Swingle was more pronounced at low irrigation rates and/or low nitrogen concentrations than it was with Volkamer. Increasing nitrogen concentration of the irrigation water during the winter months reduced leaf senescence of both Swingle and Volkamer seedlings, and also promoted continuous growth in Volkamer. Leaf growth of Swingle ceased during the winter months, regardless of the nitrogen concentration of the irrigation water.
During the past several years, watermelon trials have been performed in the state, but not as a coordinated effort. Extensive planning in 1997 led to the establishment of a statewide watermelon trial during the 1998 growing season. The trial was performed in five major production areas of the state including: The Winter Garden (Carrizo Springs); South Plains (Lubbock); East Texas (Overton); Cross Timbers (Stephenville); and the Lower Rio Grande Valley (Weslaco). Twenty seedless and 25 seeded hybrids were evaluated at each location. Drip irrigation with black plastic mulch on free-standing soil beds was used to grow entries in each area trial and yield data was recorded in a similar manner for each site. Results were reported in a statewide extension newsletter. Future plans include a continuation of the trial in the hope that multiple-year data will provide a basis for valid variety recommendations for watermelon producers in all areas of the state.
The severe advective freeze of 23-26 Dec. 1989 killed most nonprotected trees in Florida's northern citrus region. Minimum temperatures reached - 8.3C with >43 hours below freezing. Microsprinklers elevated to a height of 0.6 or 0.9 m and placed inside the canopy of young `Hamlin' and navel orange trees [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb.] provided excellent protection to heights well above 1 m. Initial survival height of trees with emitters elevated to 0.9 m was higher than has been reported for microsprinklers at a conventional 0.2-m height in earlier severe freezes. Trees rapidly approached prefreeze canopy size from regrowth of the protected scaffold branches. Six months after the freeze, trees protected by microsprinklers elevated to 0.6 m and delivering 26 or 47 liters·hour-1 had regrown to a height of 1.4 or 1.7 m, respectively. Trees with microsprinklers at a height of 0.9 m and delivering 101 liters·hour -1 had regrown to a height of 2.5 m. Trees with no microsprinkler irrigation were killed to the ground. Twelve months after the freeze, trees with elevated microsprinklers were still significantly taller and showed greater recovery than those with microsprinklers near the ground.
Abstract
Water uptake and movement in Thuja occidentalis pyramidalis Hort, during periods when soil was frozen were examined by use of deuterium as a tracer. Plants in containers were buried to the soil line and electric heating cables were placed below the pots. Deuterated water was added through access tubes when the soil was warmed above 0°C. The amount of deuterium tracer in the foliage was analysed with a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Using this technique, it was found that no water moved from the roots to the foliage when the soil was frozen. When the soil temperature was raised above 0°C, tissue deuterium content increased 7 to 10 fold.
Abstract
Cut carnation flowers shipped from California by air occasionally arrive at eastern markets in a senescent condition with losses greater in the warm autumn months. CO2 and C2H4 production by the flowers has a pattern similar to that of climacteric-class fruits, with senescence correlated with a rise in release of the gases.
Cut carnation flowers show an enormous increase in respiratory heat with increasing temperature: 89 BTU/ton/hour at 0°C versus 14,718 at 50°C. In C2H4-free air, the flowers tolerate elevated temperatures but their vase life is reduced. Their sensitivity to C2H4 increases dramatically with increasing temperature, with the threshold concentration partially depending on prior stresses on the flowers.
Flowers in containers exposed to direct sunlight developed temperatures as high as 49.5°C. Air temperatures inside containers shipped via jet aircraft were as high as 35°C. The C2H4 concentrations in the containers may reach 10.5 ppm.
The remarkable resistance of cut carnation flowers to mechanical injury, combined with their low metabolic rates at low temperatures, makes refrigerated surface shipments feasible and perhaps economically desirable. Their resistance to injury seems related to their light weight, the damping action of the petals, and the lack of phenolase or readily oxidizable phenolic compounds in the petals.
The Florida horticulture industry (vegetables, ornamentals, citrus, and deciduous fruit), valued at $4.5 billion, has widely adopted microirrigation techniques to use water and fertilizer more efficiently. A broad array of microirrigation systems is available, and benefits of microirrigation go beyond water conservation. The potential for more-efficient agricultural chemical (pesticides and fertilizer) application is especially important in today's environmentally conscious society. Microirrigation is a tool providing growers with the power to better manage costly inputs, minimize environmental impact, and still produce high-quality products at a profit.