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Chronic dry spots that occur on the upper reaches of slopes on golf putting greens lead to increased frequency of irrigation to maintain a healthy turfgrass surface. To limit one cause of dry spots, the downslope wicking of water, we investigated the use of subsurface barriers to interrupt the capillary connectivity of the bottom portion of the root zone on a 3.5-m long, laboratory-simulated section of a green having a 5% slope. We evaluated the effectiveness of the barriers on a green constructed with a sand root zone over gravel drainage and on a green constructed with a sand root zone over a geotextile atop a porous plastic grid for drainage. With sand over gravel, the barriers were effective at reducing downslope wicking and the consequential loss of stored water in the root zone on the slope. In the top 0.5 m of the slope, there was 24 mm more water stored in the root zone profile of the green constructed with barriers compared with that in the green constructed without barriers. With sand over geotextile atop a plastic grid, the barriers were effective at reducing wicking of water, but only when the downslope continuity of the geotextile was broken. In that case, there was 35 mm more water stored in the root zone profile at the top of the slope in the green constructed with barriers and a discontinuous geotextile compared with the greens constructed with barriers and continuous geotextile or with sand over gravel and no barriers.

An alternative to the time-tested gravel drainage layer beneath a sand-based root zone of a sports field or golf putting green can be constructed from a geotextile atop a highly porous drainage material or structure. The geotextile serves to support the root zone mixture on the drainage layer whose pores can be too large for the sand to support itself by bridging. In such an application, the geotextile should have high enough strength and resistance to stretching to support the root zone mixture atop the pores of the drainage layer and should contain internal pores of appropriate size to retain the bulk of particles in the root zone mixture and to allow free passage of drainage water and eluviating fine particles. The objective of this study was to determine whether geotextiles selected to meet these criteria affect the drainage rates of sand-based root zones and whether they affect the size of particles lost from the root zone–geotextile systems. In a 1-year laboratory study that made use of 150-mm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) test cells, measurements of drainage rates and saturated hydraulic conductivities were made on replicated combinations of 10 geotextiles and three 300-mm deep root zone mixtures. Size distributions and total masses of particles that passed from the root zones through the geotextiles were measured. Statistical analyses showed that drainage rate, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and size distribution and mass of eluviated particles were unaffected by the properties of the geotextiles. The results gave of no reason to prohibit the use of geotextiles to support sand-based root zones in golf putting greens or sports fields.

Proper water management is a major responsibility of managers of creeping bentgrass grown on putting greens in the hot and humid southern states. The combination of shallow root systems, sand-based root zones, high temperatures, and high evaporative demands frequently results in severe drought stress on bentgrass (Agrostis palustris Huds.) greens. This study was initiated to determine the effects of irrigation frequency on creeping bentgrass turgor pressure and on the O₂ and CO₂ concentrations in a sand-based root zone mixture. In total, 81 plots, 1.5 × 1.5 m each, were established on a USGA-type root zone mixture and organized into 9 groups of 9 plots each. Each group could be irrigated individually. One plot in each group was planted to either `A-4', `Crenshaw', `Mariner', `L-93', or `Penncross' creeping bentgrass. Irrigation frequency treatments of 1-, 2-, and 4-day replacement of historical PET were imposed on three groups each. After establishment, measurements of the leaf water potential, osmotic potential, soil oxygen concentration, and soil carbon dioxide concentrations were made over a 1- to 2-year period. Bentgrass irrigated every 1 or 2 days had significantly (P = 0.05) greater turgor pressures at 0600 hr as compared to turf irrigated every 4 days in 1997. No differences were seen in 1998 due to drier environmental conditions. Concentrations of O₂ and CO₂ in the soil air remained in the optimal range for all treatments, indicating that lack of O₂ in the root zone as a result of frequent irrigation may not be the primary cause for reduced rooting depth of bentgrass grown on highly permeable sand-based root zone mixtures.

A strain of the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma harzianum was tested for effectiveness in improving the performance of sh2 sweet corn using a variety of delivery methods. In greenhouse trials, Trichoderma seed treatment reduced the proportion of weak plants (unlikely to make a marketable ear) from 40% to 10%. This is evidence that the characteristically uneven stand establishment of supersweet corn should be overcome by using Trichoderma. In field trials, Trichoderma and Gliocladium (a related fungus) were inoculated as a seed treatment without fungicide in spring-tilled plots. Yields of uninoculated controls were 2.2, Gliocladium-treated were 2.6, and Trichoderma -treated were 3.6 T/ac. Delivering the same lines of fungus in the fall to a rye cover crop resulted in high populations the following spring. The cover crop was killed and fungicide-treated seed of `Zenith' sweet corn was planted without tillage. Yield with Trichoderma was 4.0, with Gliocladium was 3.7, and uninoculated was 2.4 T/at. The uninoculated, conventionally-tilled plots also yielded 4 T/at. Thus the beneficial fungi overcame the inhibition caused by no-till. Trichoderma was delivered effectively both as a seed treatment and on a winter cover crop to improve stand uniformity and overall yield.

Responses to selected chemical growth retardants (daminozide, paclobutrazol, and prohexadione-Ca) and GA₁ and GA₃ under photoselective greenhouse covers with various phytochrome photoequilibrium estimates (φ_e) were evaluated using `Bright Golden Anne' chrysanthemum [Dendranthema ×grandiflora Kitam. (syn. Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.)] as the model plant to better understand the height control mechanism by far red (FR) light depleted environments. Plant height linearly decreased as φ_e increased from 0.72 to 0.83. The rate of height decrease of daminozide treated plants was less than that of water (control) or GA₃-treated plants. The rate of height reduction was not different between control and GA₃-treated plants among chambers with various φ_e. Both paclobutrazol and prohexadione-Ca reduced plant height regardless of φ_e, but the height reduction by paclobutrazol was more than that by prohexadioneCa. The combination of paclobutrazol and prohexadione-Ca reduced plant height more than either alone. GA₁ reversed the height reduction caused by paclobutrazol and prohexadione-Ca regardless of φ_e, but the height increase by GA₁ was more when it was applied with prohexadione-Ca than when applied alone. Results show that photoselective covers with high φ_e were effective in controlling height of chrysanthemums without chemical growth retardants. The linear relationship between plant height and φ_e suggests that effectiveness of photoselective covers increased as φ_e increased. The photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) transmission of photoselective covers decreased as the φ_e increased because of the increasing dye concentration. Identifying photoselective covers that effectively filter out FR light from sunlight and reduce plant height while minimizing the PPF reduction is critical for commercial success of photoselective covers. Gibberellins are, at least partially, involved in height control by photoselective covers. Photoselective greenhouse covers did not reduce responsiveness to gibberellins, and it appears that the mechanism may be to suppress gibberellin biosynthesis. Results also suggest that increased metabolism of GA₁ to GA₈ was not the mechanism of height control by photoselective covers. Chemical names used: butanedioic acid mono (2,2-dimethylhydrazide) [daminozide]; (±)-(R^*,R^*)-b-((4-chlorophenyl)methyl)-a-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole-1-ethanol [paclobutrazol]; 3,5-dioxo-4-(1-oxopropyl)cyclohexanecarboxylic acid [prohexadione-Ca]; gibberellic acid [GA].

Abstract

The South Atlantic Coast vegetable project, officially titled “Agricultural Adjustment in the Southeast Through Alternative Cropping Systems”, involves a group of horticulturists and agricultural economists working as an interdisciplinary team. This regional project directly involves three universities—the Depts. of Horticulture and Agricultural Economics at Clemson Univ., the Univ. of Georgia, and North Carolina State Univ.

The purpose of this review is to promote a discussion about the potential implications of herb production in controlled environments, focusing on our recent works conducted with feverfew. Research suggests that the content of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants fluctuates with changing environmental conditions. Our studies with feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium [L.] Schultz-Bip., Asteraceae) lend support to this hypothesis. Feverfew plants exposed to different water and light conditions immediately before harvest exhibited changes in content of some secondary metabolites. The highest yield of parthenolide (PRT) was in plants that received reduced-water regimes. Phenolics concentration however, was higher in plants receiving daily watering. Light immediately before harvest enhanced accumulation of PRT, but reduced the phenolic content. Notably, PRT decreased at night whereas total phenolics decreased during the photoperiod and increased at night. PRT also increased with increased plant spacing. UV light supplementation increased PRT only in plants that had undergone water stress, whereas phenolics increased when UV was applied to continuosly watered plants. Clearly, production of medicinal plants under greenhouse conditions is a promising method for controlling levels of phytochemicals through manipulation of light and water as discussed here, and possibly other environmental factors such as temperature and daylength. However, better understanding of how the environment alter secondary metabolite levels is needed as it was revealed that manipulating the environment to favor increased accumulation of one group of phytochemicals could result in a decline of other key metabolites.

As the need for landscape and golf course water conservation increases, use of low-quality irrigation water combined with deficit irrigation practices is becoming more common. Information is lacking concerning the effects of water quality on bermudagrass response to deficit irrigation, as well as the extent to which plant growth regulators may ameliorate or delay the negative effects of water stress on warm-season turfgrass. The objectives of this 10-week greenhouse study were to 1) characterize growth, quality, and evapotranspiration (ET) of ‘Tifway’ bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon × C. traansvalensis Burt Davy) when irrigated at full (1.0 × ET_a) or deficit (0.3 × ET_a) levels of actual turfgrass evapotranspiration (ET_a) using three irrigation water sources [reverse osmosis (RO), sodic potable, and saline] and 2) determine whether application of trinexapac-ethyl (TE) could mitigate turfgrass quality decline under deficit irrigation. Results indicated that turf irrigated with sodic irrigation water exhibited significantly elevated ET_a and shoot growth compared with turf receiving RO or saline irrigation water in both studies. Irrigation water source affected turfgrass quality differently at each irrigation level. TE application improved turfgrass quality and/or delayed firing under soil moisture stress in both studies, with the greatest benefit noted under the less intense conditions of the spring experiment. Elevated canopy temperatures were observed within all deficit irrigation treatments, regardless of water chemistry. Results demonstrate that irrigation water quality may influence turfgrass ET rates. In addition, they suggest that trinexapac-ethyl may offer short-term mitigation of drought stress under deficit irrigation.

Urban landscape irrigation is becoming increasingly important from a resource management point of view. Significant water use savings may be achieved if landscape irrigation is based on reference evapotranspiration (ET_o). This study measured landscape crop coefficients (K_L) for landscapes that are comprised of different vegetation types and irrigation water quality differences affecting K_L. The K_L was determined from the ratio of actual evapotranspiration to the ET_o calculated from the modified Penman-Monteith equation. Irrigation quantity was based on 100% replacement of ET_o. The K_L values were determined for the following landscape vegetation on a fine sandy loam: St. Augustinegrass [Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze.], a single shumard red oak (Quercus shumardii Buckl.), St. Augustinegrass plus red oak, native grasses [Muhlenbergia capillaries (Lam.) Trin. and Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash], and native grasses plus Red Oak in both College Station (CS) and San Antonio (SA), TX. Soil was systematically placed into lysimeters containing a drainage system and soil moisture probes. Lysimeters (1136 L) were placed in-ground in a randomized complete block design with three blocks. Soil moisture measurements were made at 0- to 20-, 20- to 40-, and 40- to 60-cm depths. The K_L was determined after a rainfall or irrigation event for periods of 2 to 5 days. During the combined growing seasons of 2007 and 2008, K_L in SA increased from early, to mid, to late season. In CS, the K_L was unaffected by plant treatment or season. The St. Augustinegrass treatment K_L seasonally ranged from 0.45 to 0.62 in SA. In CS, soil sodium accumulation caused decreased K_L. These results of K_L for mixed-species landscapes on non-sodic sites trend toward seasonal values of 0.5 to 0.7 for irrigation decisions in southern Texas. Landscape coefficients can be used as a tool in irrigation decision-making, which could contribute to water savings in amenity landscapes.

Effective landscape management practices in urban landscapes must include an awareness of nutrient removal from soil caused by leaching, and these practices should be those least damaging to freshwaters. Annual mean dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), nitrate-N, ammonium-N, soluble phosphate, and bicarbonate concentrations and fluxes were quantified in leachate from landscapes planted with different urban horticultural types. Plot vegetation consisted of either a single species or mixed species. The experiment was conducted at two sites in Texas with significantly different irrigation water chemistry. At the two sites, plant species had a significant effect on PO₄ ^3--P flux, and irrigation chemistry had a significant effect on all nutrient fluxes. There was an interaction between plant species and irrigation chemistry for PO₄ ^3--P flux (P < 0.05) only. The relationship between bicarbonate and DOC flux at sites was stronger and significant (0.92; P < 0.05) at the site irrigated with Na-HCO₃ municipal tap water than at the site irrigated with Ca-HCO₃ municipal tap water (R ² = 0.76, P = 0.05). Type of irrigation water chemistry may result in lower plant water uptake resulting in increased nutrients lost to leachate.