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The tolerance of velvet bentgrass (Agrostis canina L.) to the herbicide fenoxaprop is not known. In greenhouse experiments velvet bentgrass cultivars SR7200 and Vesper had a much greater degree of tolerance to fenoxaprop at rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.30 kg·ha^-1 relative to L-93 creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.). SR7200 and Vesper were tolerant to fenoxaprop at 0.15 kg·ha^-1 or lower and growth reductions did not exceed 10% at the highest fenoxaprop rate of 0.30 kg·ha^-1. In contrast, growth reduction of L-93 creeping bentgrass was evident at the lowest application of fenoxaprop at 0.01 kg·ha^-1 and increased as fenoxaprop rates increased, reaching as high 58% at 0.30 kg·ha^-1. Field experiments were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to compare the tolerance of established SR7200 velvet bentgrass and Penn A-4 creeping bentgrass maintained at 3.2 mm to three sequential applications at 21 day intervals of fenoxaprop at 0.02, 0.04, and 0.07 kg·ha^-1. Turf quality of SR7200 was equal to the untreated following all fenoxaprop applications except the third sequential application at 0.07 kg·ha^-1. Penn A-4 turf quality was consistently reduced compared to the untreated following fenoxaprop applications of 0.04 and 0.07 kg·ha^-1. Turf density of SR7200 was not affected by three sequential applications of fenoxaprop at 0.02 and 0.04 kg·ha^-1 but was reduced by 8% at 0.07 kg·ha^-1. Penn A-4 turf density was reduced by 10 and 33% following three sequential applications of fenoxaprop at 0.04 and 0.07 kg·ha^-1, respectively. Results from these studies showed that the velvet bentgrass cultivars were more tolerant to fenoxaprop, compared to the creeping bentgrass cultivars evaluated. Chemical names used: (+)-ethyl2-[4-[(6-chloro-2-benzoxazolyl)oxy]p henoxy] propanoate (fenoxaprop). 3,5-pyridinedicarbothioic acid, 2-(difluoromethyl)-4-(2-methylpropyl)-6-(trifluoromethyl)-S,S-dimethylester (dithiopyr).

Dallisgrass control in response to various timings and frequencies of single and combination herbicide treatments was evaluated from 2010 to 2012 in Lubbock, TX. Treatments included thiencarbazone-methyl + foramsulfuron + halosulfuron-methyl (TFH) at 15 + 31 + 47 or 22 + 45 + 70 g a.i./ha, foramsulfuron at 106 g a.i./ha, and foramsulfuron + thiencarbazone-methyl + iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium + dicamba (foramsulfuron + TID) at 106 + (22 + 5 + 147) g a.i./ha. Applications of TFH provided ≤65% dallisgrass control by 10 weeks after initial treatment (WAIT) across two rates (15 + 31 + 47 or 22 + 45 + 70 g a.i./ha) and three application timings [September, October, or September followed by (fb) a sequential October application]. At 37 WAIT, sequential applications of TFH at 15 + 31 + 47 g a.i./ha resulted in 92% dallisgrass control. Similarly, application of TFH at 22 + 45 + 70 g a.i./ha provided 94% and 97% dallisgrass control when applied in September or September fb October, respectively. However, single October applications of TFH only provided ≤55% dallisgrass control 37 WAIT. Sequential combinations of foramsulfuron + TID at 106 + (22 + 5 + 147) g a.i./ha provided 93% dallisgrass control 37 WAIT, equivalent to single applications of TFH at 15 + 31 + 47 g a.i./ha and sequential treatments at 15 + 31 + 47 or 22 + 45 + 70 g a.i./ha. However, initial control (10 WAIT) with foramsulfuron + TID was moderate (63%). Sequential foramsulfuron applications (106 g a.i./ha) resulted in inadequate dallisgrass control (35% and 48%) 10 and 37 WAIT, respectively. Results from this study suggest that long-term dallisgrass control may be achieved when TFH is applied in September or September fb October. Applications initiated in October resulted in inadequate control, regardless of rate, which may be linked to reduced herbicidal absorption and translocation due to the onset of dallisgrass dormancy in late fall. Chemical names used: methyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-3-methoxy-4-methyl-5-oxo-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)carbonylsulfamoyl]-5-methylthiophene-3-carboxylate (thiencarbazone-methyl); 2-[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoylsulfamoyl]-4-formamido-N,N-dimethylbenzamide (foramsulfuron); methyl 3-chloro-5-[(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)carbamoylsulfamoyl]-1-methylpyrazole-4-carboxylate (halosulfuron-methyl); sodium (5-iodo-2-methoxycarbonylphenyl)sulfonyl-[(4-methoxy-6-methyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)carbamoyl]azanide (iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium); and 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid (dicamba).

Field trials were conducted in 2000 and 2001 to determine the potential of converting pure stands of annual bluegrass [Poa annua L. spp. reptans (Hauskins) Timm.], maintained at a 3.2-mm height, to bentgrass (Agrostis spp.). Parameters evaluated included three overseeding dates and four cultivars from two bentgrass species. Overseeding dates were 1 July, 18 Aug., and 18 Sept. 2000 and 27 June, 17 Aug., and 17 Sept. 2001. Three creeping bentgrass (A. stolonifera L.) cultivars (`Penncross', `L-93', and `Penn A-4') and one velvet bentgrass (A. canina L.) cultivar (`SR7200') were evaluated. Initial bentgrass establishment was evident across all seeding dates and cultivars in October of the year of overseeding. However, the 1 July 2000 and 27 June 2001 overseeding dates had the highest levels of bentgrass coverage 12 months after overseeding across all cultivars except `Penncross'. Coverage of `Penn A-4' and `L-93' increased to 72% in the 1 July 2000 overseeding date, 24 months after the initial overseeding. When overseeded in early summer, velvet bentgrass `SR7200' showed the greatest potential for establishment with annual bluegrass. `SR7200' and creeping bentgrass cultivars `Penn A-4' and `L-93' exhibited the greatest potential for long-term competitiveness with annual bluegrass, while `Penncross' exhibited the lowest potential.

Slow growth and establishment rate has become a major limitation to the increased use of zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.) as a turfgrass surface. Two separate field studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of genotype, planting date, and plug spacing on zoysiagrass establishment. Field experiments were conducted in 2007 and 2008 to quantify the establishment rate of six zoysiagrass genotypes from vegetative plugs. ‘Meyer’ exhibited the largest plug diameter (22 cm) 6 weeks after planting (WAP). In contrast, ‘Diamond’ exhibited the smallest plug diameter (13 cm) 6 WAP. A similar trend was observed 12 WAP. ‘Meyer’, ‘Zorro’, and ‘Shadow Turf’ exhibited the largest plug diameters (60, 58, and 57 cm, respectively) 12 WAP. In contrast, ‘Emerald’ and ‘Diamond’ exhibited the smallest plug diameters (41 and 40 cm, respectively) 12 WAP. Although statistically different, all zoysiagrass genotypes reached similar establishment 18 WAP indicating that plugging these genotypes in a comparable environment and using techniques described in this research may result in analogous long-term (18 weeks) establishment. Field experiments were conducted in 2006 and 2007 to determine the optimum planting date and plug spacing of ‘Shadow Turf’ zoysiagrass. ‘Shadow Turf’ zoysiagrass plugs planted on 28 July 2006 (11% to 65% cover) and 14 June 2007 (5% to 39% cover) exhibited the greatest increase in turfgrass cover 6 WAP, except for plugs planted 15.2 cm apart on 26 May 2006 (74% cover). Zoysiagrass cover was greatest for plugs planted on 26 May 2006 (63% to 100%) and 17 May 2007 (46% to 97%) 16 WAP regardless of plug spacing. These planting dates corresponded to the highest accumulative growing degree-days (GDD) experienced by all planting dates in both years. Plugs planted on 15.2-cm centers exhibited the greatest zoysiagrass cover 6 and 16 WAP regardless of planting date. Using late spring/early summer planting dates and 15.2- to 30.5-cm plug spacings may result in the quickest turfgrass cover when establishing ‘Shadow Turf’ zoysiagrass from plugs.

Dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum Poir.) and bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Fluegge) are two of the most troublesome weed species in managed turfgrass. These rhizomatous, perennial grass species affect appearance, texture, and playability of turf in home lawns, golf courses, and athletic fields. The severity and prevalence of these problem species as well as the difficulty of achieving control with herbicide management alone invite the examination of their realized niches for clues to improved management tactics. The distribution of these species was evaluated in both fairways and roughs of three holes on each of two golf courses in North Carolina. Golf courses were selected based on the presence of both weed species. Individual plants were mapped using a high-precision global positioning system unit. This unit was also used to delineate between the rough and fairway height of cut as well as obtain elevation characteristics of each hole. Soil moisture and soil compaction estimates were obtained by sampling on a 9-m grid. Environmental characteristics used for χ² analysis consisted of mowing height, soil compaction, soil moisture, and elevation. Data were subjected to χ² analysis to determine if the existing distribution of Paspalum spp. differed from an expected random distribution across all environmental factors. Bahiagrass growth and distribution was more affected by mowing height than dallisgrass. Bahiagrass was predominantly distributed in the rough, whereas dallisgrass occurred at both mowing heights. Similar responses were observed for both species with regard to soil compaction. Higher plant density for both species was observed in moderately compacted soil (40 to 60 N·m⁻²). Bahiagrass distribution was unaffected by soil moisture. Dallisgrass density was lower in areas with low volumetric soil water content (less than 27%). Although different from an expected uniform distribution on all six holes, the elevation with the highest Paspalum spp. density varied across holes. Results suggest that it may be possible to disadvantage Paspalum spp. in competitive interactions with desirable species through the alteration of landscape attributes. Substrate selection during construction, aeration, and mowing height may help create a landscape that discourages Paspalum spp. infestation.

Establishing turfgrass in shaded environments can create a unique maintenance challenge. Shading reduces zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.) photosynthesis and results in reduced turfgrass aesthetic quality. Zoysiagrass is a warm-season, perennial turfgrass that forms a dense, uniform turf through the production of rhizomes and stolons. It has demonstrated good tolerance to growth in reduced light intensity environments. Greenhouse experiments were conducted in 2006 and 2007 to evaluate the relative difference in growth response to three light intensities (0%, 50%, and 90% shade) among six zoysiagrass genotypes under artificial shade conditions. Percent change in zoysiagrass plug diameter decreased as shade level increased 6 and 12 weeks after planting (WAP) regardless of year or genotype. ‘Diamond’ and ‘Shadow Turf’ exhibited the greatest percent change in plug diameter 12 WAP (60% to 69%) followed by the remaining zoysiagrass genotypes (21% to 56%) when grown under 50% shade, regardless of year. In 2006, no zoysiagrass genotype maintained acceptable turfgrass quality (6 or greater) 12 WAP when grown under 50% shade. However, ‘Diamond’ and ‘Shadow Turf’ exhibited acceptable turfgrass quality ratings (7.0 and 6.3) 12 WAP in 2007, whereas all other genotypes exhibited unacceptable turfgrass quality ratings (5.0 to 5.7). In 2006, ‘Shadow Turf’ zoysiagrass exhibited the greatest percent increase in plug diameter (21%) followed by ‘DALZ 0501’ (15%) and ‘Diamond’ (5%) 12 WAP when grown under 90% shade. All other zoysiagrass genotypes exhibited decreases in plug diameter (31% to 87%). In 2007, ‘Shadow Turf’ and ‘Diamond’ exhibited the greatest percent change in plug diameter (11%) followed by ‘DALZ 0501’ (7%) 12 WAP when grown under 90% shade. All other zoysiagrass genotypes exhibited decreases in plug diameter (17% to 38%). Turfgrass quality declined as shade level increased 6 and 12 WAP regardless of year or genotype. ‘Shadow Turf’ and ‘Diamond’ exhibited the highest turfgrass quality ratings (4.7 and 3.7, respectively, in 2006 and 5.3 in 2007) 12 WAP when grown under 90% shade. Proper zoysiagrass cultivar selection may improve turfgrass growth and quality under low light intensity while increasing turfgrass options for shaded environments.

No research has investigated the phytotoxic response of hooker’s evening primrose (Oenothera elata) plug transplants to preemergence herbicides. Varied phytotoxic responses of common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) to preemergence herbicides suggest that options may exist for the safe control of weeds present within hooker’s evening primrose when grown as an agronomic field crop. Enhanced weed control during early establishment may reduce competition for water and nutrients as well as increase seed yield and oil content. Therefore, the objective of this research was to determine the phytotoxic effect of preemergence herbicides on hooker’s evening primrose plug transplants grown in the greenhouse. Research was conducted in 2010 and 2011 at the Plant and Soil Science greenhouse complex at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, TX. Herbicide treatments were applied on 13 July 2010 and 5 Apr. 2011 and consisted of oxadiazon at 3 lb/acre, isoxaben at 0.5 lb/acre, oryzalin at 2 lb/acre, prodiamine at 1.5 lb/acre, dithiopyr at 0.5 lb/acre, s-metolachlor at 1.8 lb/acre, pendimethalin at 0.6 lb/acre, and isoxaben + trifluralin at 2.5 lb/acre. One 4-month-old hooker’s evening primrose plug (2 inches wide) was transplanted into each pot (3 gal) 2 days after treatment (DAT). Dithiopyr and s-metolachlor treatments exhibited similar lack of phytotoxicity as the untreated control 7 DAT. Phytotoxicity ≥13% was observed for trifluralin + isoxaben, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oryzalin, isoxaben, and oxadiazon 7 DAT, with the highest level of phytotoxicity (24%) exhibited by trifluralin + isoxaben treatments. Hooker’s evening primrose phytotoxicity decreased (plants grew out of the damage) for all treatments except trifluralin + isoxaben, pendimethalin, and oryzalin 28 DAT. Oryzalin (16%) and trifluralin + isoxaben (60%) were the only two treatments that did not exhibit similar phytotoxicity to the untreated control 28 DAT. There were no significant differences in aboveground or belowground biomass nor plant growth index (PGI) of any of the treatments when compared with the untreated control 28 DAT. Based upon the results of this trial, pendimethalin, prodiamine, dithiopyr, s-metolachlor, oryzalin, isoxaben, and oxadiazon may be used for preemergence weed control in hooker’s evening primrose without causing excessive phytotoxicity (>20%), potential yield loss, or both. Trifluralin + isoxaben treatments exhibited 60% hooker’s evening primrose phytotoxicity 28 DAT, which resulted in too low of an initial plant stand to warrant use.

Research compared handheld and mobile data acquisitions of soil moisture [volumetric water content (VWC)], soil compaction (penetration resistance), and turfgrass vigor [normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI)] of four natural turfgrass sports fields using two sampling grid sizes (4.8 × 4.8 m and 4.8 × 9.6 m). Differences between the two sampling grid sizes were minimal, indicating that sampling with handheld devices using a 4.8 × 9.6 m grid (120–130 samples) would achieve results similar to the smaller grid size. Central tendencies and data distributions varied among the handheld and mobile devices. Moderate to strong correlation coefficients were observed for VWC and NDVI; however, weak to moderate correlation coefficients were observed for penetration resistance at three of the four locations. Kriged maps of VWC and NDVI displayed similar patterns of variability between handheld and mobile devices, but at different magnitudes. Spatial maps of penetration resistance were inconsistent due to device design and user reliability. Consequently, mobile devices may provide the most reliable results for penetration resistance of natural turfgrass sports fields.

Metamifop is a postemergence aryloxyphenoxypropionic acid herbicide used for the control of annual and perennial grass weeds in cereal crops and rice (Oryza sativa L.). Previous research observed creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) tolerance to applications of metamifop, suggesting utilization for the removal of encroaching bermudagrass (Cynodon Rich.) from creeping bentgrass putting greens with little to no phytotoxicity. Therefore, the objective of our research was to evaluate the efficacy of metamifop for common bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] control in a greenhouse environment. Experiments were conducted at the Plant and Soil Science greenhouse facility at Texas Tech University in Lubbock in 2011 and 2012. ‘Riviera’ and ‘Savannah’ common bermudagrass were seeded at 218 lb/acre into 4-inch square pots containing a soilless potting media on 26 Aug. 2011 and 14 Nov. 2011. Pots were allowed to mature in the greenhouse over a 3-month period where they were maintained at a height of 0.25 inches. Herbicide treatments were applied on 1 Dec. 2011 and 8 Feb. 2012 and consisted of metamifop at 0.18, 0.27, 0.36, or 0.45 lb/acre. A sequential application of each treatment was made on 22 Dec. 2011 and 29 Feb. 2012. A nontreated control was included for comparison. Clipping ceased after initial herbicide treatment and pots produced biomass for 3 weeks. Biomass above 0.25 inch was removed from each pot, dried, and weighed. This procedure was conducted again 3 weeks after sequential treatments. The rate of metamifop required to reduce bermudagrass growth 50% (GR₅₀) was calculated 3 and 6 weeks after initial treatment (WAIT). Visual ratings of percent bermudagrass control were recorded weekly on a scale of 0% (no control) to 100% (completely dead bermudagrass). As metamifop rate increased, bermudagrass biomass decreased. The calculated GR₅₀ at 3 WAIT for ‘Savannah’ and ‘Riviera’ was 0.19 and 0.14 lb/acre, respectively. Nontreated control pots exhibited 0% control and produced 0.59 to 0.83 g of biomass at 3 WAIT, regardless of cultivar. Metamifop at 0.27 to 0.45 lb/acre exhibited 96% to 100% bermudagrass control at 3 WAIT, regardless of cultivar. Bermudagrass subjected to those same treatments only produced 0.01 to 0.03 g of biomass at 3 WAIT, regardless of cultivar. The 0.18-lb/acre rate of metamifop exhibited only 9% control of ‘Savannah’ bermudagrass with 0.72 g of biomass collected, while ‘Riviera’ was controlled 41% with 0.38 g of biomass collected. The calculated GR₅₀ at 6 WAIT for ‘Savannah’ and ‘Riviera’ was 0.13 and 0.14 lb/acre, respectively. Sequential applications of metamifop at 0.27 to 0.45 lb/acre completely controlled bermudagrass (100%) at 6 WAIT, while a sequential application at 0.18 lb/acre only controlled bermudagrass 8% to 19% at 6 WAIT, regardless of cultivar. Bermudagrass subjected to 0.18 lb/acre exhibited 0.48 to 0.56 g of biomass at 6 WAIT, regardless of cultivar. Metamifop shows potential as an alternative control option for common bermudagrass present within cool-season turfgrass species.

The effect of mowing regimens on lateral spread of khakiweed (Alternanthera pungens Kunth) was determined through field studies conducted over a 3-month period in Texas during 2009 and 2010. Treatments were selected to simulate mowing regimens common to intensively managed common bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] turf and included heights of 1.3 cm (three times/wk), 2.5 cm (two times/week), and 5.1 cm (two times/week). A non-mowed control was included for comparison. Differences in lateral spread of khakiweed among mowing regimens were apparent 4 weeks after initial treatment (WAIT). However, plant diameter increased for all mowing regimens over the course of the trial. Khakiweed plants subjected to the 1.3-cm mowing regimen did not increase in diameter from Week 2 through Week 12, whereas the other two mowing regimens exhibited steady increases in plant diameter over the same time period. By 12 WAIT, non-mowed control plots measured 80.8 cm in diameter, whereas those maintained at 1.3 cm measured 55.3 cm. Comparatively, plants subjected to the 2.5- and 5.1-cm mowing regimens measured 64.7 and 68.8 cm, respectively. Therefore, khakiweed infestations may be more prevalent in bermudagrass mowing heights commonly used for golf course roughs, athletic fields, and home lawns (2.5 cm or greater). However, the production of a thick taproot high in carbohydrate content may enable khakiweed to regenerate from frequent defoliation common to fairway mowing regimes (2.5 cm or less). Adjustments in mowing height may not be enough to effectively reduce khakiweed populations in bermudagrass turf.