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A Weibull distribution function was used to develop a model for estimating cumulative flowering and the distribution of flowers of `Tifblue' rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade) as a function of growing degree days (GDD) after chilling for chill hours ranging from 300 to 1200. Controlled chilling and flowering conditions were imposed on blueberry plants to obtain data for model development. Once developed the model was validated using independent data sets which were available in the literature. Given information concerning chilling and historical GDD, the model can be used to predict the onset of flowering, cumulative flowering, total number of flowers, and flower frequency at discrete intervals. It is expected that the techniques developed will be applicable to a range of fruit species in which chilling influences flowering habit.
A Weibull distribution function was used to develop a model for estimating cumulative flowering and the distribution of flowering of `Titblue' rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium Ashei Reade) as a function of growing degree days (GDD) following exposure to chilling temperatures for 300 to 1200 hours. Controlled chilling and flowering conditions were imposed on blueberry plants to obtain data for model development. Once developed, the model was validated using independent data sets from the literature. Given information concerning chilling and historical GDD, the model can be used to predict the onset of flowering, cumulative flowering, total number of flowers, and flower frequency at discrete intervals. The techniques developed likely will be applicable to a range of fruit species in which chilling influences flowering habit.
Field studies were conducted to evaluate the tolerance of several pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars to the herbicide clomazone. Peppers tested included the bell cultivars Yolo Wonder and Jupiter; the banana cultivar Sweet Banana; and the pungent cultivars Jalapeno and Red Chili. Treatments were clomazone at 0.56 or 1.12 kg·ha-1 a.i. applied either preplant incorporated (PPI), pretransplant (PRE-T), or posttransplant (POS-T) on the day of transplanting, plus a nontreated control. Clomazone at 1.12 kg·ha-1 a.i. PPI and PRE-T significantly injured (bleaching or chlorosis of foliage) `Sweet Banana' (40% and 20%, respectively) and `Red Chili' (30% and 18%, respectively) in 1993 in early-season evaluations, but this injury was transient and did not significantly affect total fruit number or yield. Injury to any cultivar from POS-T clomazone at 0.56 and 1.12 kg·ha-1 a.i. was nonsignificant. Overall, tolerance to clomazone was excellent for all treatments and across all cultivars. Yield was not reduced significantly by any treatment. Chemical names used: 2-[(2-chlorophenyl) methyl]-4, 4-dimethyl-3-isoxazolidinone (clomazone).
Field studies were conducted in 1993, 1994, and 1996 to determine the tolerance of several cultivars of zucchini and yellow crookneck squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) to various rates and methods of application of clomazone, ethalfluralin, and pendimethalin. Applying herbicides preplant soil incorporated (PPI), preemergence (PRE), at seedling emergence (SE), or early postemergence (EPOT) resulted in plant injury that varied from 0% to 98%. Ethalfluralin and pendimethalin (PPI) at 1.12 kg·ha–1 a.i. resulted in the greatest stand and yield reductions across all cultivars. Fruit number and weight declined for all cultivars in 1993 and 1994 as the amount of pendimethalin applied PRE was increased. Zucchini (`Senator') fruit size was significantly reduced for the first three harvests in 1993 by PRE application of pendimethalin or PPI application of ethalfluralin, at all rates. Yellow squash (`Dixie') fruit size was unaffected by herbicide treatment for any harvests during 1993 or 1996. Yellow and zucchini squash yield, fruit number, and average fruit weight were equal to, or greater than, those of the untreated control for PRE clomazone using either the emulsifiable concentrate formulation (EC) during 1993, 1994, and 1996 or the microencapsulated formulation (ME) during 1996. Foliar bleaching and stunting by clomazone was evident in early-season visual observations and ratings, but the effect was transient. Foliar bleaching by clomazone PPI (1.12 kg·ha–1 a.i.) was more evident in `Senator' zucchini, and yield was significantly reduced in 1993. These effects of clomazone PPI were not evident in 1994 for either `Elite' or `Senator' zucchini squash. Chemical names used: 2-[(2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4, 4-dimethyl-3-isoxazolidinone (clomazone); N-ethyl-N-(2-methyl-2-propenyl)-2,6-dinitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine (ethalfluralin); N-(1-ethylopropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzenamine (pendimethalin).
Field studies were conducted in 1993, 1994, and 1995 to determine tolerance of seeded and transplanted watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nak.] to clomazone, ethalfluralin, and pendimethalin using method of stand establishment (directseeded vs. transplanted) and time of herbicide application [preplant soil incorporated (PPI), preplant to the surface (PP), or postplant to the surface (POP)] as variables. Yield and average fruit weight in plots with clomazone were equal to or greater than those in control plots for the 3-year study regardless of method of application. Bleaching and stunting were evident with clomazone in early-season ratings, but injury was transient and did not affect quality or yield. Of the three herbicides, ethalfluralin PPI resulted in the greatest injury, stand reduction, and yield reduction of the three herbicides. Pendimethalin (PPI, PP, or POP) reduced yield of direct-seeded but not of transplanted watermelon. Chemical names used: 2-[(-2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4, 4-dimethyl-3-isoxazolidinone (clomazone); N-ethyl-N-(2-methyl-2-propenyl)-2,6-dinitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine (ethalfluralin); N-(1-ethylopropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzenamine (pendimethalin).
A low-cost field shading structure was developed that offers durability and simplicity. The quonset-type structure uses readily available materials, including polyvinyl chloride pipe, construction-grade reinforcing bars, nylon rope, and commercial shade fabric. The total cost for a 3.0 × 6.0 × 2.4-m (width/length/height) structure that provided 47% shade was $88.00. The structure offers substantial flexibility in terms of size and degree of shading without significantly altering design. The structure was durable under a wide range of weather conditions, and the design allowed sufficient air movement to prevent a stagnant air layer from developing over the crop.
Field studies were conducted to determine the tolerance of 11 sweet corn (Zea mays L.) cultivars to the herbicides nicosulfuron and primisulfuron. The su cultivar `Merit' was intolerant of nicosulfuron and primisulfuron, as indicated by significant differences from the untreated check for all measured variables. Most other su cultivars exhibited stunting, but injury was ≤19% (0% = no injury; 100% = dead) with nicosulfuron and primisulfuron in 1992. The se cultivars Alpine and Harris Moran Silverado exhibited variable stunting to nicosulfuron (25% and 23% injury, respectively) and primisulfuron (43% and 50%, respectively) in 1992. The sh2 cultivar Supersweet Jubilee was injured less by nicosulfuron (16%) than by primisulfuron (33%) in 1992. All cultivars except Merit recovered from early-season herbicide injury in 1992 and 1993. Significant differences among the se, su, and sh2 cultivars were recorded for the remaining variables (stalk height, marketable ear number and yield, ear length and diameter), but no patterns with respect to a specific sugary genetic background developed in 1992 or 1993. Nicosulfuron and primisulfuron were safely applied to the cultivars Alpine, Harris Moran Silverado, Royal Gold, Seneca Chief, Calumet, Jubilee, and Supersweet Jubilee without reductions in fresh ear yield. Chemical names used: {2-[[[[(4,6-dimethoxy-2-pyrimidinyl)amino] carbonyl]amino]sulfonyl]-N,N-dimethyl-3-pyridinecarboxamide} (nicosulfuron); {methyl 2[[[[[4,6-bis(difluoromethoxy)-2-pyrimidinyl]amino]carbonyl]amino]sulfonyl]benzonate} (primisulfuron).
Commercial nurseries use large amounts of water and nutrients during production cycles. Runoff contaminated with N and P can adversely impact surface and groundwater quality. A 3-year monitoring study of nutrient mitigation by a constructed wetland at a container nursery found nitrogen removal was highly efficient. However, orthophosphate-P removal was highly variable. Partial removal occurred during some months, but net export also occurred. P levels in wetland discharge—between 0.84 and 2.75 ppm—were well above the generally accepted level for preventing downstream eutrophication. Therefore, identifying landscape plants that remediate nutrients, especially P, could be useful in improving constructed wetlands. A 2003 greenhouse study screened commercially available landscape plants for their phytoremediation potential. Among the 17 taxa and 19 cultivars examined were woody shrubs, e.g., Cornusamomum, Myricacerifera`Emperor', and Salix integra `Hakura Nishiki'; herbaceous semiaquatics, e.g., Canna(two cultivars), Colocasia esculenta `Illustris', Rhyncospora colorata, Iris`Full Eclipse', Pontederia cordata `Singapore Pink', and Thalia geniculata `Red Stem'; and floating aquatics, e.g., Myriophyllum aquaticum, Eichhornia crassipes, and Pistia stratiotes. Plants were grown in pea gravel media and kept saturated with one of five concentrations of Hoagland's. Herbaceous and woody plants were harvested after 8 and 13 weeks, respectively. Experiments were replicated twice for each cultivar. The nutrient uptake efficiency was determined for each taxon from the total amount of N and P applied and the biomass dry weight and N and P content.
Commercial nurseries use large amounts of water and nutrients to produce container-grown plants. The large volume of runoff containing nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) that leaves nurseries can contaminate surface and groundwater. Subsurface flow-constructed wetlands have been shown to effectively treat agricultural, industrial, and residential wastewater and to be well-suited for growers with limited production space. We investigated the possibility of using commercially available aquatic garden plants in subsurface-constructed wetlands to remove nutrients in a laboratory scale, gravel-based system. Seven popular aquatic garden plants received N and P from Hoagland's nutrient solution every 2 days for 8 weeks. These rates (0.39 to 36.81 mg·L−1 of N and 0.07 to 6.77 mg·L−1 P, respectively) encompassed low to high rates of nutrients found at various points between the discharge and inflow points of other constructed wetland systems currently in use at commercial nurseries. Plant biomass, nutrient recovery, and tissue nutrient concentration and content were measured. Whole plant dry weight positively correlated with total N and P supplied. Louisiana Iris hybrid ‘Full Eclipse’, Canna × generalis Bailey (pro sp.) ‘Bengal Tiger’, Canna × generalis Bailey (pro sp.) ‘Yellow King Humbert’, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott ‘Illustris', Peltandra virginica (L.) Schott, and Pontederia cordata L. ‘Singapore Pink’ had the greatest N recovery rates. The P recovery rates were similar for the cannas, Colocasia esculenta ‘Illustris’, Louisiana Iris ‘Full Eclipse’, Pe. virginica, and Po. cordata ‘Singapore Pink’. The potential exists for creating a sustainable nursery and greenhouse production system that incorporates a subsurface-constructed wetland planted with marketable horticultural crops that provide remediation and revenue.
Intensive production of container-grown nursery and greenhouse crops in soilless substrate may result in significant leaching of nutrients and pesticides. The resulting runoff can escape from production areas and negatively impact surface and ground water. Constructed wetlands (CWs) have been shown to be a simple, low-technology method for treating agricultural, industrial, and municipal wastewater. We investigated the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removal potential by a vegetated, laboratory-scale subsurface flow (SSF) CW system. Over an 8-week period, five commercially available aquatic garden plants received a range of N and P (0.39 to 36.81 mg·L−1 N and 0.07 to 6.77 mg·L−1 P) that spanned the rates detected in nursery runoff. Whole plant dry weight was positively correlated with N and P supplied. Highest N and P recovery rates were exhibited by Thalia geniculata f. rheumoides Shuey and Oenenathe javanica (Blume) DC. ‘Flamingo’, Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene also had high P recovery rates. The potential exists for using SSF CWs to concomitantly produce aquatic garden plants and attenuate nutrients in a sustainable nursery enterprise.