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Shoot growth `Starkspur Supreme Delirious' on 10 different rootstock was measured on 3-, 4- and 6-year-old trees at weekly intervals from budbreak until terminal bud formation. Spur density, spur development, and extension shoot leaf area development were measured in September. Growth rate was analyzed by regression against chronological time and accumulated growing degree days using linear and nonlinear statistics.
Rootstock affected shoot length, leaf number, leaf area, leaf size, leaf dry weight/leaf area and internode length. Trees on M.4, M.7 EMLA, P-1 and seedling had the longest shoots and highest shoot growth rate. Trees on P16 had least leaves and leaf area per shoot and smallest shoot leaves. Leaf dry wt./area were negatively correlated to leaf size. Typically, trees with shortest shoot length and smallest internode length had greatest spur density. Rootstock affected both rate and duration of shoot growth. Shoots on trees with P22 and P2 rootstocks grew for the shortest duration while trees on M.4 and M.7 EMLA grew for the longest period.
In a required introductory horticulture course during a 5-year period, students received early progress grades 1/3rd of the way through the course reflecting 20% of the possible points to be awarded in the class. It was thought that student knowledge of their grade performance may result in changes in behavior and class performance. The early progress and final grades both had a bell-shaped distribution with 45% and 48% of students receiving grades better than “C” for early progress and final grades, respectively. There was a significant although low correlation between early progress grades and final grades for the course (r 2 = 0.58). About 50% of the students received a final grade equal to the early progress grades, and 27% received grades higher than the early progress grades. The greatest change in performance were students who received a “D” early progress grade; 60% of those students improved their final grade. Nearly 25% of the students received final grades lower than the early progress grades. Of students receiving failing early progress grades (12%), nearly 60% withdrew from the course and only 10% received passing final grades.
Current practices of fertilizer management, potential problems, and paths for fertilizer management research were discussed. Apple nutrition management in the humid southern regions of the U.S. is typically challenged by several factors such as inherently low soil pH, variable soil chemistry, and irregular precipitation. Some literature and personal experiences with orchard replant conditions and fumigation, fertigation, fertilizer delivery system, and time of fertilizer application were reviewed. On replant sites, fumigation and liming significantly improved tree survival and growth in the first 5 years. Fertigation with ammonium nitrate significantly lowered soil pH in the root zone compared to top dress applications. Using calcium nitrate resulted in less pH reduction. Results of studies of autumn application of N fertilizers have been mixed, with reports of no, decreased, or increased effects on fruit set, yield, and growth. Studies with size-controlling rootstocks indicate additional need to study the uptake of Mn and related Mn toxicity. Precocious rootstocks with high early yields have resulted in foliar K levels approaching deficiency within the first 10 years of production. Indications are that high-density orchards may have additional requirements for K fertilizers.
To enhance the opportunities for students to access information and the instructors of a large, general plant science class, “Virtual Classroom” concepts using computers resources were implemented. The Virtual Classroom uses three computer resources: 1) a closed subscription LISTSERV for the extramural class discussions, 2) electronic mail for homework assignment and submission, and 3) a World Wide Web Internet homepage for the course. In a large, introductory-level class, student–teacher interaction can be limited. The size of the class and the content may inhibit questioning and discussion among the class participants. The LISTSERV allowed for questions to be posed by students at their leisure and facilitated discussion among students and the instructor outside of the confines of the class meeting. The LISTSERV also allowed instructors to to respond to the students by referring questions to “experts” on a particular subject. Using e-mail for homework assignment and submission was useful for tracking when student read assignments and submitted completed assignments. Electronic assignment grading and returning was paperless and easy for instructors to maintain. The homepage provided students with a permanent syllabus, lecture outlines, homework assignment descriptions, and study aids. Additionally, from the homepage students were able to send e-mail to instructors and search library databases and other electronic databases. Experiences from the instructors using these computer resources will be presented and discussed.
As part of the NC-140 rootstock evaluation trials, `Starkspur Supreme Delicious' on 18 rootstocks planted in 1984 were evaluated for growth and pruning requirement. After 9 seasons, trees on the P.22 produced the smallest trees, 1.1 m width and 1.7 m height. The stocks P.16, P.2 and Bud.9 produced trees 2.0-2.2 m wide and 2.1-2.6 m tall. Trees on MAC.39, C.6, MAC 1, M.26 EMLA P.1, BUD.490, M.7 EMLA, CG.24, and domestic seedling were 2.9-3.4 m wide and 3.7-4.3 m tall. The largest trees were on P.18 and M.4; 3.6 m wide and 4.2 m tall. Dormant pruning time in two seasons significantly increased at an exponential rate with increasing tree width and height. An asymptote for maximum pruning time had an x-axis intersection at approximately 2.7 m tree height. Pruning time per tree significantly increased in a linear manner with increasing trunk cross section. When pruning time was calculated on a per hectare basis, trees planted at 1460 to 2000 trees/ha required less pruning time than when planted at ≤ 750 tr/ha or ≥ 4000 tr/ha. Trees on P.16, P.2, Bud.9 and C.6 required the least pruning per unit of fruit production.
Small fruit production in the southern United States has been impacted greatly by fruit breeders this century. This workshop, co-sponsored by the American Pomological Society, includes presentations from individuals who have contributed collectively over 150 years to small fruit and grape breeding. James N. Moore has conducted breeding at the University of Arkansas, developing 30 cultivars. His presentation on brambles outlines achievements and future opportunities for improvement. Arlen Draper has been involved with the development of 61 small fruit cultivars while working with the USDA-ARS with an emphasis on blueberry. His presentation focuses on blueberry breeding and provides insights into the future of new blueberry cultivar developments. Gene Galletta has conducted small fruit breeding at North Carolina State University and USDA-ARS and has been involved with the development of 50 cultivars. His presentation reflects on the history of strawberry breeding in the South and the challenges that lie ahead. Ron Lane has served as a fruit breeder and horticulturist at the University of Georgia Experiment Station at Griffin and his work has emphasized the development of muscadine grape cultivars. The past and future of muscadine and bunch grape breeding is discussed in his paper. Articles from all authors in this workshop will be published in Fruit Varieties Journal in 1997.
`Empire', `Smoothee', `Jonagold', and `Rome Beauty' apple cultivars (CV) on five size-controlling rootstocks, Bud.9, M.9 EMLA, M.26 EMLA, Mark, and Ott.3, were planted in Fayetteville, Ark., in 1990 as a complete block design with six replications. Although interactions for several growth variables were observed in 1990–93, there were no cultivar–rootstock interactions in 1994, 1995, or for cumulative yield. After six seasons' growth, CV did not significantly affect any growth variable. Trees on M.26 and M.9 were the largest, while trees on Mark were significantly smaller for both tree height and TCA; trees on Ott.3 and Bud.9 were intermediate. `Smoothee' had the greatest cumulative yield, while both `Jonagold' and `Rome Beauty' had significantly less; `Empire' yield was intermediate. Trees on Ott.3 and M.26 had larger cumulative yields than other stocks, which were all similar. Trees on Mark had the greatest yield/TCA, while M.9 and M.26 had the least yield/TCA; Ott.3 and B.9 were intermediate. Trees on Mark had very high levels of foliar Mn and exhibited symptoms of Mn-induced internal bark necrosis.
Gas exchange (assimilation, transpiration, water use efficiency, and conductance) of `Shawnee' blackberry were measured under field conditions with a portable system (ADC-IRGA with Parkinson Leaf Chamber). Gas exchange primocane pentifoliate leaflets were similar. Gas exchange rates of leaves along a cane exhibited a quadratic function of leaf position with leaves in lower-mid sections (relative position 0.3 - 0.5) having higher A, TR, WUE, gs than either basal or apical leaves. Leaves subtending fruiting laterals on fruiticanes had higher assimilation than similar age leaves on primocanes but did not differ in Tr, WUE, or gs. Primocanes had estimated dark respiration rates of 0.33mg·dm-1.hr-1, estimated light compensation at 14-20 mol.m-2.s-1, estimated light saturation at 1000-1100 mol.m-2.s-1 with maximum A rates ranging from 24-30 mg CO2.dm-1.hr-1. Measurements were made at field temperatures ranging from 24-35 C. Although temperature response was not measured, correlation indicated that Tr, WUE, and gs were more closely related to temperature than A. Similarly, Tr and WUE were more closely related to gs than A (r = 0.6 to 0.8).