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Wild Anagallis monelli exhibits blue or orange flower colors in geographically isolated populations. A new red flower color was developed through breeding, and a three-gene model was proposed for the inheritance of flower color in this species. In this study, blue and orange wild diploid accessions were used as parents to develop six F2 populations (n = 19 to 64). Sexual compatibility between blue and orange wild individuals was low with only 29% of the hybridizations producing F1 individuals. Six of 14 cross combinations between F1 siblings produced fruits, and fruiting success ranged from 55% to 90%. The number of seeds per fruit averaged 14.1 and germination rates for the F2s were low (16.8% to 30.7%). In three of six F2 populations obtained, flower color segregation ratios for orange, blue, and red were not significantly different from the expected ratios under a previously proposed three-gene model. White flower color was obtained as a fourth color variant in two of the remaining F2 populations. For one of these populations, segregation ratios were not significantly different from expected ratios for an expanded four-gene model. White flowers did not contain anthocyanidins, suggesting that there was a mutation in the early stage of the anthocyanin pathway. Orange flower color was found to be primarily the result of pelargonidin, blue to malvidin, and red to delphinidin. These three pigments may be present simultaneously, and their ratios play a significant role in determining flower color. Other factors such as copigments, metal ions, or a different molecular conformation of the anthocyanin could also be involved in flower color determination.
To measure the effect of added Ca fertilizer on the Ca concentration of snap bean pods, four snap bean cultivars were grown during Summer 1996 and 1997 at Hancock, Wis. Fertilizer treatments consisted of 80 kg of Ca per hectare applied as Ca sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) or Ca nitrate [Ca(NO3)2], and the control (no Ca applied. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with a factorial set of treatments (4 × 3). Calcium sulfate was applied at planting, whereas Ca nitrate was split applied four times at weekly intervals starting 1 week before flowering. Yield and Ca concentration in pods were determined. The statistical analysis showed no significant effect of Ca fertilizers on pod Ca concentration or yield. A strong cultivar effect was detected for both parameters measured. `Evergreen' (5.47 mg Ca per gram dry weight) had the highest pod Ca concentration and `Labrador' (4.10 mg Ca per gram dry weight) the lowest. No significant fertilizer × cultivar interactions were observed. Results for pod Ca concentration remained consistent, even when significant year effects were found for both parameters.
This study was designed to compare snap and dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for pod Ca concentration, and to identify genetic resources that might be useful in breeding programs directed to increase Ca concentration in bean pods. Pods from eight snap bean and eight dry bean cultivars were evaluated for Ca concentration during 1995 and 1996 at Hancock, Wis. A randomized complete-block design was utilized with three replications in 1995 and six in 1996. Beans were planted in June and hand-harvested in August for both experiments. Soil Ca at planting time was 580 mg·kg–1 in 1995 and 500 mg·kg–1 in 1996. No additional Ca was added. Plots consisted of 10 plants each. At harvest, a pooled sample of 10 to 15 size no. 4 pods was collected from each plot. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was used to determine Ca content. Significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) were detected among and within bean types (dry and snap). Although bean type × year interaction was nonsignificant, a strong year effect was observed (P ≤ 0.01). Snap beans (4.6 ± 0.7 mg·g–1 dry weight) had significantly higher pod Ca concentration than did dry beans (4.2 ± 0.6 mg·g–1 dry weight). Within snap beans, `Checkmate' had the highest pod Ca concentration (5.5 ± 0.3 mg·g–1 dry weight) and `Nelson' the lowest (3.8 ± 0.3 mg·g–1 dry weight). Within dry beans, `GO122' had the highest (5.1 ± 0.4 mg·g–1 dry weight) and `Porrillo 70' the lowest pod Ca concentration (3.6 ± 0.3 mg·g–1 dry weight). Six cultivars had pod Ca concentrations significantly (P ≤ 0.01) higher than the overall mean (4.4 ± 0.3 mg·g–1 dry weight).
To understand the genetics that control pod Ca concentration in snap beans, two snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations consisting of 60 genotypes, plus 4 commercial cultivars used as checks, were evaluated during Summers 1995 and 1996 at Hancock, Wis. These populations were CA2 (`Evergreen' × `Top Crop') and CA3 (`Evergreen' × `Slimgreen'). The experimental design was an 8×8 double lattice repeated each year. No Ca was added to the plants grown in a sandy loam soil with 1% organic matter and an average of 540 ppm Ca. To ensure proper comparison for pod Ca concentration among cultivars, only commercial sieve size no. 4 pods (a premium grade, 8.3 to 9.5 mm in diameter) were sampled and used for Ca extractions. After Ca was extracted, readings for Ca concentration were done via atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In both populations, genotypes and years differed for pod Ca concentration (P = 0.001). Several snap bean genotypes showed pod Ca concentrations higher than the best of the checks. Overall mean pod Ca concentration ranged from a low of 3.82 to a high of 6.80 mg·g-1 dry weight. No differences were detected between the populations. Significant year×genotype interaction was observed in CA2 (P = 0.1), but was not present in CA3. Population variances proved to be homogeneous. Heritability for pod Ca concentration ranged from 0.48 (CA2) to 0.50 (CA3). Evidently enhancement of pod Ca concentration in beans can successfully be accomplished through plant breeding.
Two commercial snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars (Hystyle and Labrador) that differ in pod Ca concentration were grown aeroponically to assess physiological factors associated with these differences. Xylem flow rate, Ca absorbed, and Ca concentration in sieve sap and pods (all and commercial size no. 4) were measured. Flow rate, Ca absorption and pod Ca concentration, but not sap Ca concentration, differed between cultivars, and this suggests that genetic variability in pod Ca concentration is caused mainly by differences in flow rate, rather than differences in sap Ca concentration. `Hystyle' showed 1.6 times greater flow rate, 1.5 times greater pod Ca concentration, and 1.7 times greater Ca absorbed than `Labrador'. Flow rate correlated positively with Ca absorbed (R = 0.90), Ca concentration in pods of size no. 4 (R = 0.55), and total pods (R = 0.65). Plant maturity influenced sap Ca concentration and Ca translocated increased as plant matured. These results provide evidence that flow rate differences may cause variability for pod Ca concentration in snap beans.
Stomatal density of pods and leaves were determined for six commercial snap bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris L. `Evergreen', `Hystyle', Labrador', `Tenderlake', `Top Crop', and `Venture') grown at three planting dates, in an attempt to find morphological traits that could be related to cultivar differences in pod Ca concentration. Snap beans were planted three times at ≈1-week intervals beginning 15 June 1995, and harvested 59 to 62 days after planting. Stomatal counts were performed using a microscope linked to a video camera, and Ca concentration determinations were made using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Calcium concentration and stomatal density of leaf tissue was higher than that of pods. Cultivar differences for pod Ca concentration (P = 0.001) and stomatal density (P = 0.001) were observed although cultivars with higher pod stomatal density did not necessarily result in higher pod Ca concentration. Calcium concentration and stomatal density for leaves did not differ among cultivars. Stomatal density and Ca concentration of pods were positively correlated (R 2 = 0.37), while pod maturity was negatively associated to both pod Ca concentration (R 2 = 0.93), and pod stomatal density (R 2 = 0.99). The effect of planting dates was absent in pod Ca concentration and significant in pod stomatal density.