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- Author or Editor: David J. Chalmers x
Abstract
The Tatura Trellis was developed from principles to overcome problems identified in existing cultural systems (2, 3, 6). For optimum early bearing and yield, we wanted a) a tree design that fills the allotted space quickly, resulting in optimum land use; b) a uniform and controlled distribution of leaves and fruit to improve light interception (16) and photosynthetic efficiency (5); c) an ordered branch and leaf array that diminishes light competition within and between trees, so as to minimize the effects of crowding that usually result from high plant densities, especially with peach trees; d) close planting to create root competition, thereby reducing vegetative vigor while increasing fruitfulness (4); and e) large tree numbers per hectare for high yields early in the life of the planting. In addition, we proposed that within the above constraints, the new system should be simple to mechanize. The requirements we considered important were f) an orchard with planar, though not necessarily horizontal or vertical, surfaces for easy positioning of machines and aids; g) a canopy under which machines can operate to recover fruit simply during harvesting, and over the canopy for summer pruning; h) a shallow canopy to decrease the chance of fruit striking limbs or other obstructions, which could damage the fruit after they were removed mechanically (30); i) a shallow canopy to increase penetration and coverage of protective sprays; and j) single limbs that repeat at regular intervals to simplify the positioning of mechanical devices.
Five-year old `Hosui' Asian pear (Pyrus serotina Rehder) trees growing in drainage lysimeters and trained onto a Tatura trellis were subjected to three different irrigation regimes. Weekly water use (WU) was calculated using the mass-balance approach. Soil-water content of control lysimeters was kept at pot capacity, while deficit irrigation was applied before [regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)] and during the period of rapid fruit growth [late deficit irrigation (LDI)]. Soil-water content was maintained at ≈50% and 75% of pot capacity for RDI and LDI, respectively. Deficit irrigation reduced mean WU during RDI and LDI by 20%. The reduced WU was caused by lower stomatal conductance (gs) on deficit-irrigated trees. RDI trees had more-negative diurnal leaf water potentials (ψl). The ψl, gs, and WU remained lower for 2 weeks after RDI was discontinued. RDI reduced shoot extension and summer pruning weights, whereas winter pruning weights were not different between treatments. Except for the final week of RDI, fruit growth was not reduced, and fruit from RDI grew faster than the control during the first week after RDI. In contrast, fruit volume measurements showed that fruit growth was clearly inhibited by LDI. Final fruit size and yield, however, were not different between treatments. Return bloom was reduced by RDI but was not affected by LDI.
Temperature differences between tree canopies and air (Tc - Ta) and between leaves and air (T1 - Ta) of apples (Malus domestics Borkh. `Royal Gala') grown in New Zealand were measured with infrared (IR) thermometry. Treatments included three orchard-floor management systems and irrigation withheld (WI) for part of the growing season. Measurements of soil moisture indicated that, under full irrigation (FI), an alfalfa orchard-floor system apparently had higher soil water content than herbicide-strip (H) or plastic-mulch systems, whereas under the drought stress of WI, the H system retained the most water. The Tc - Ta and T1 - Ta of the WI treatment were significantly greater than those of the FI treatment after a soil-moisture differential was established. Linear regression between Tc - Ta, or T1 - Ta, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) exhibited variable responses among dates. A crop water stress index (CWSI) was calculated from environmental measurements. The calculated CWSIS were not related to soil-moisture measurements. Even 35 days after full irrigation had been reinstated on the WI plots, the Tc - Ta, T1 - Ta, and CWSI of the WI plots were still significantly greater than those of the FI plots. These discrepancies in IR thermometry-based water-stress indices may be due to increased errors in the calculation of minimum CWSI at low VPDS and to fluctuating solar radiation and evapotranspiration, which are prevalent in humid, temperate climates.
Nashi pear (Pyrus serotina Rehder, cv. Hosui) trees were planted in 12 computerized 1m-wide drainage lysimeters in September 1987. During the 1990 season tree water use was monitored via lysimeter and neutron probe readings. Diurnal leaf water relations were studied using a pressure chamber for water potential (ψ) and a porometer for leaf conductance (gs). Xylem sap trunk flow velocities were measured with an experimental heat pulse device and converted to xylem flux. Close agreement existed between 24 hr xylem flux and lysimeter water use when comparing trees with different soil water content. Xylem flux also was very sensitive to changes in evaporative demand. During 9–13 day drying cycles pre-dawn ψ became progressively lower, morning decline more rapid, and afternoon recovery slower. The diurnal gs pattern also shifted during drying cycles, such that gs of water stressed trees always decreased from time of first measurement of sunlit leaves rather than increasing during the morning as on non-stressed trees. Late afternoon was the best time to distinguish between fully irrigated and stressed trees using gs measurements.
The design of a type of drainage lysimeter, as tested with trees of Pyrus serotina Rehder var. culta Rehder `Hosui' is described. All lysimeter operations and monitoring of irrigation and drainage volumes were managed by a “multi-tasking” controller/datalogger. It was possible to apply different irrigation levels to each of three sets of four random lysimeters. Evapotranspiration (ET) was calculated using a conservation of water equation, with differences between irrigation inputs and drainage outputs corrected for changes in soil-water content. ET ranged between 3.3 and 10.7 liters/tree per day in well-watered, noncropped trees in late Summer and Fall 1990. These rates correspond to ET of 0.13 to 0.43 liter·cm-2·day-1 and 0.96 to 3.10 liters·m-2·day-1 on trunk cross-sectional area and canopy area bases, respectively. The correlation coefficient between ET and Class A pan evaporation was >0.9 during this period. Weekly crop coefficients for the well-watered trees averaged 0.52 when calculated on a canopy-area basis. When irrigation was withheld for 18 days, the crop coefficient declined to 0.38. There were no differences in ET between trees growing in the two soil profiles, despite significant differences in soil water distribution.
Seasonal water use data are presented for 4-year-old Pyrus serotina Rehder cv. Hosui growing in drainage lysimeters and trained onto a Tatura trellis. Weekly water use (WU) was calculated using the mass balance approach. For 8 consecutive weeks during late summer, instantaneous WU was also measured by the compensation heat-pulse technique for measuring sap flow. Although good agreement was found between the two methods for 4 weeks after probe installation, discrepancies increased after this time. Water use was highest in early to mid-January in New Zealand, averaging ≈8 liters/tree per day, or 2 liters·m-2 canopy surface area/day. Total water use over the growing season was 1070 liters/tree, or 245 liters·m-2 canopy surface area. The correlation coefficient between weekly WU and evaporation from a nearby Class A pan was 0.81 for the season. Weekly crop coefficients thus calculated for the well-watered trees ranged from 0.15 to 0.55 and 0.20 to 0.83 when calculated using canopy surface area and projected ground area, respectively. Low values were due to low values of canopy leaf area early in the season. Withholding irrigation during three periods resulted in a gradual decline in water use. Water-stressed trees had a lower predawn water potential than fully irrigated trees. This pattern was followed by a more-rapid decline during the morning, and a slower recovery during late afternoon and early evening. Midday leaf water potential never fell below -2.5 MPa.
Stomatal conductance (g s) of `Hosui' Asian pear (Pyrus serotina Rehder) trees growing in lysimeters was characterized for trees in well-watered soil and after brief water deficit. The measures of water status used to interpret g s data were soil-water content, leaf water potential (ψl), and instantaneous water use (trunk sap flow by the compensation heat-pulse technique). The diurnal course and range of g s values of well-irrigated Asian pear trees were similar to those reported for other tree fruit crops. Soil moisture at the end of a midsummer deficit period was 60% of lysimeter pot capacity, and diurnal ψl reflected this deficit predawn and in the late afternoon compared to well-irrigated trees. The g s was sensitive to deficit irrigation during more of the day than ψl, with g s values <3 mm·s-1 for most of the day; these were less than half the conductances of well-irrigated trees. The reduction of g s in response to a given soil-water deficit was not as great on days with lower evaporative demand. After a water deficit, g s recovered to predeficit values only gradually over 2 to 3 days. The low g s of trees in dry soil was the apparent cause of reduced transpiration, measured by trunk sap flow, and reduced responsiveness of sap flow to fluctuations in net radiation.