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Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are of increasing interest in controlled environment plant production because of their increasing energy efficiency, long lifetime, and colors can be combined to elicit desirable plant responses. Red light (600–700 nm) is considered the most efficient wavelength for photosynthesis, but little research has compared growth responses under different wavelengths of red. We grew seedlings of impatiens (Impatiens walleriana), petunia (Petunia ×hybrida), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and marigold (Tagetes patula) or salvia (Salvia splendens) at 20 °C under six sole-source LED lighting treatments. In the first experiment, a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 160 μmol·m⁻²·s^–1 was provided for 18 h·d⁻¹ by 10% blue (B; peak = 446 nm) and 10% green (G; peak = 516 nm) lights, with the remaining percentages consisting of orange (O; peak = 596 nm)–red (R; peak = 634 nm)–hyper red (HR; peak = 664 nm) of 20–30–30, 0–80–0, 0–60–20, 0–40–40, 0–20–60, and 0–0–80, respectively. There were no consistent effects of lighting treatment across species on any of the growth characteristics measured including leaf area, plant height, or shoot fresh weight. In a second experiment, seedlings were grown under two light intensities (low, 125 μmol·m⁻²·s^–1 and high, 250 μmol·m⁻²·s^–1) consisting of 10% B and 10% G light and the following percentages of R–HR: 0–80, 40–40, 80–0. Shoot fresh weight was similar in all light treatments, whereas shoot dry weight was often greater under the higher light intensity, especially under the 40–40 treatments. Leaf chlorophyll concentration under 40–40_low, 80–0_low, or both was often greater than that in plants under the high light treatments, indicating that plants acclimated to the lower light intensity to better use photons available for photosynthesis. We conclude that O, R, and HR light have generally similar effects on plant growth at the intensities tested when background G and B lights are provided and thus, selection of red LEDs for horticultural applications could be based on other factors such as economics and durability.

A majority of commercial propagation of herbaceous ornamental cuttings occurs during the winter when the photosynthetic daily light integral (DLI) is relatively low. We quantified how the mean DLI influenced rooting and subsequent growth and development of two popular vegetatively propagated species, New Guinea impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri Bull.) and petunia (Petunia ×hybrida hort. Vilm.-Andr.). Three cultivars of each species were propagated under a mean DLI ranging from 1.2 to 10.7 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹. Cuttings were rooted in a controlled greenhouse environment maintained at 24 to 25 °C with overhead mist, a vapor-pressure deficit of 0.3 kPa, and a 12-h photoperiod. Rooting and growth evaluations of cuttings were made after 8 to 16 d. In a separate experiment, rooted cuttings under DLI treatments were then transplanted into 10-cm containers and grown in a common greenhouse at 21 ± 2 °C under a 16-h photoperiod to identify any residual effects on subsequent growth and development. In both species, rooting, biomass accumulation, and quality of cuttings increased and subsequent time to flower generally decreased as mean propagation DLI increased. For example, root number of petunia ‘Tiny Tunia Violet Ice’ after 16 days of propagation increased from 17 to 40 as the propagation DLI increased from 1.2 to 7.5 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹. In addition, cutting shoot height decreased from 6.3 to 4.5 cm, and root and shoot dry biomass of cuttings harvested after 16 days of propagation increased by 737% and 106%, respectively. Subsequent time to flower for ‘Tiny Tunia Violet Ice’ from the beginning of propagation decreased from 50 to 29 days as propagation DLI increased from 1.4 to 10.7 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹ regardless of the DLI provided after propagation. In New Guinea impatiens ‘Harmony White’, root and shoot dry weight of cuttings increased by 1038% and 82%, respectively, and subsequent time to flower decreased from 85 to 70 days as the propagation DLI increased from 1.2 to 10.7 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹. These experiments quantify the role of the photosynthetic DLI during propagation on the rooting and subsequent growth and development of vegetatively propagated herbaceous ornamental cuttings.

Plant growth is plastic and adaptive to the light environment; characteristics such as extension growth, architecture, and leaf morphology change, depending on the light spectrum. Although blue (B; 400–500 nm) and red (R; 600–700 nm) light are generally considered the most efficient wavelengths for eliciting photosynthesis, both are often required for relatively normal growth. Our objective was to quantify how the B:R influenced plant seedling growth and morphology and understand how plants acclimated to these light environments. We grew seedlings of three ornamental annuals and tomato under six sole-source light-emitting diode (LED) lighting treatments or one cool-white fluorescent treatment that each delivered a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 160 µmol·m⁻²·s^–1 for 18 h·d⁻¹. The following treatments were provided with B (peak = 446 nm) and R (peaks = 634 and 664 nm) LEDs: B₁₆₀ (160 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ of B light only), B₈₀+R₈₀, B₄₀+R₁₂₀, B₂₀+R₁₄₀, B₁₀+R₁₅₀, and R₁₆₀. Seedlings of impatiens (Impatiens walleriana), salvia (Salvia splendens), petunia (Petunia ×hybrida), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) were grown for 31 to 37 days at a constant 20 °C. Plants with as little as 10 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ of B light were 23% to 50% shorter and had 17% to 50% smaller leaves than plants under only R light. Impatiens and salvia had 53% to 98% greater fresh shoot weight under treatments without B light than with ≥80 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹. Plants grown under fluorescent lamps had the greatest chlorophyll content but also had among the thinnest leaves of treatments. Blue-rich light increased flowering in impatiens and reduced incidence of intumescences on tomato. We conclude that, in sole-source lighting of propagules, B light inhibits leaf and stem expansion, which subsequently limits photon capture and constrains biomass accumulation. As little as 10 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ of B light in an R-dominant background can elicit desirable growth responses for the production of young plants and for other situations in which compact growth is desired.

Photoperiodic lighting from lamps with a moderate ratio of red [R (600–700 nm)] to far-red [FR (700–800 nm)] light effectively promotes flowering of long-day plants (LDPs). Because of spectral controllability, long life span, and energy efficiency, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have emerged as an alternative to conventional light sources, such as incandescent (INC) and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. We conducted a coordinated trial with five commercial greenhouse growers to investigate the efficacy of R + white (W) + FR LEDs, with an R:FR of 0.82, to regulate flowering of daylength-sensitive ornamental crops. The trial was also performed in two replicate greenhouses at Michigan State University (MSU). Ageratum (Ageratum houstonianum), calibrachoa (Calibrachoa ×hybrida), dahlia (Dahlia ×hybrida), dianthus (Dianthus chinensis), petunia (Petunia ×hybrida), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), and verbena (Verbena ×hybrida) were grown under natural short days (SDs) with 4-hour night-interruption (NI) lighting provided by the R + W + FR LEDs or conventional lamps typically used by each grower. Two companies used HPS lamps, whereas the other sites used INC lamps. In addition, a natural SD treatment, a truncated 9-hour SD treatment, or a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) NI treatment was provided at three different sites. With few exceptions, time to flower and flowering percentage of the bedding plant crops tested were similar under the R + W + FR LEDs to that under the conventional lamps at all sites. At MSU, ageratum, dianthus, petunia, snapdragon, and verbena flowered earlier under NI lighting treatments than under 9-hour SDs. In addition, plant height and visible flower bud or inflorescence number at flowering were similar under the R + W + FR LEDs and INC lamps for most crops. Therefore, we conclude that the R + W + FR LEDs are as effective as lamps traditionally used in greenhouses at controlling flowering of photoperiodic plants.

Inflorescences of some moth orchid (Phalaenopsis and Doritaenopsis) hybrids can become very tall, which can pose shipping challenges for commercial producers and be unwieldy for consumers. We determined the efficacy of paclobutrazol as a foliar spray to inhibit inflorescence elongation of these genera and intergeneric hybrids. A single application of 15, 30, or 45 mg·L⁻¹ palcobutrazol at a volume of 0.2 L·m⁻² was applied to Doritaenopsis Miss Saigon, Doritaenopsis Andrew, and Phalaenopsis ‘Smart Thing’ grown at 23 °C to induce flowering. Applications were made after inflorescence emergence but before flower initiation (inflorescences were 1 to 2 cm long) or after flower initiation (inflorescences were 10 to 18 cm long). None of the paclobutrazol applications inhibited total inflorescence elongation of ‘Smart Thing’ or Miss Saigon. However, paclobutrazol inhibited inflorescence elongation from treatment until first flowering of Andrew by 19% to 23% when plants were treated with 15 or 45 mg·L⁻¹ before flower initiation and 30 or 45 mg·L⁻¹ after flower initiation. One or more concentrations of paclobutrazol applied after flower initiation reduced the length of the internode between the first and second flower on all three orchid clones. Paclobutrazol delayed flowering only on Miss Saigon (by 2 days) and only when applied after flower initiation. Paclobutrazol application did not affect the number of inflorescences or flowers, diameter of the first flower, number of new leaves formed, or increase in leaf span. Growers are advised to perform small-scale trials with paclobutrazol solutions starting at 30 to 45 mg·L⁻¹ within 1 week of inflorescence emergence, although higher concentrations may be appropriate for the most vigorous varieties. Furthermore, a late spray application can cause unwanted crowding of the flowers.

Commercial greenhouse growers often produce bedding plants from midwinter to early summer, and thus crops are grown under a wide range of environmental conditions. Despite bedding plants' high economic value, the interactions of temperature and photosynthetic daily light integral (DLI) on growth and flowering have not been determined for many bedding plants. We grew celosia (Celosia argentea L. var. plumosa L.) and seed impatiens (Impatiens wallerana Hook.f.) in glass greenhouses in a range of temperature (15 to 27 °C) and DLI (8 to 26 mol·m^-2·d^-1) conditions to quantify effects on growth and flowering. Growth (e.g., plant dry mass at flowering) and flowering characteristics (e.g., time to flowering and flower bud number) were modeled in response to the average daily temperature and DLI by using multiple regression analysis. Rate of progress to flowering (1/days to flower) of celosia increased as temperature increased up to ≈25 °C and as the average DLI increased to 15 ·mol·m^-2·d^-1. Impatiens grown under a DLI <15 mol·m^-2·d^-1 flowered progressively earlier as temperature increased from 14 to 28 °C, whereas temperature had little effect on flowering time when plants were grown under the highest DLI treatments. Number of flowers and flower buds at first flowering increased in both species as temperature decreased or DLI increased. Shoot dry mass at first flowering followed a similar trend, except celosia dry mass decreased as temperature decreased. The models developed to predict flowering time and plant quality could be used by commercial growers to determine the impacts of changing growing temperature, growing plants at different times of the year, and providing supplemental lighting.

Plastics that selectively reduce the transmission of far-red light (FR, 700 to 800 nm) reduce extension growth of many floricultural crops. However, FR-deficient (FR_d) environments delay flowering in some long-day plants (LDPs), including `Crystal Bowl Yellow' pansy (Viola ×wittrockiana Gams). Our objective was to determine if FR light could be added to an otherwise FR_d environment to facilitate flowering with minimal extension growth. In one experiment, plants were grown under a 16-hour FR_d photoperiod, and FR-rich light was added during portions of the day or night. For comparison, plants were also grown with a 9-hour photoperiod [short-day (SD) control] or under a neutral (N) filter with a 16-hour photoperiod (long day control). Flowering was promoted most (i.e., percent of plants that flowered increased and time to flower decreased) when FR-rich light was added during the entire 16-hour photoperiod, during the last 4 hours of the photoperiod, or during the first or second 4 hours after the end of the photoperiod. In a separate experiment, pansy was grown under an FR_d or N filter with a 9-hour photoperiod plus 0, 0.5, 1, 2, or 4 hours of night interruption (NI) lighting that delivered a red (R, 600 to 700 nm) to FR ratio of 0.56 (low), 1.28 (moderate), or 7.29 (high). Under the N filter, the minimum NI duration that increased percent flowering was 2 hours with a moderate or low R:FR and 4 hours with a high R:FR. Under the FR_d filter, 2 or 4 hours of NI lighting with a moderate or low R:FR, respectively, was required to increase percent flowering, but a 4-hour NI with a high R:FR failed to promote flowering. Pansy appears to be day-neutral with respect to flower initiation and a quantitative LDP with respect to flower development. The promotion of reproductive development was related linearly to the promotion of extension growth. Therefore, it appears that in LDPs such as pansy, light duration and quality concomitantly promote extension growth and flowering, and cannot readily be separated with lighting strategies.

For many long-day plants (LDP), adding far red light (FR, 700 to 800 nm) to red light (R, 600 to 700 nm) to extend the day or interrupt the night promotes extension growth and flowering. Blue light (B, 400 to 500 nm) independently inhibits extension growth, but its effect on flowering is not well described. Here, we determined how R-, FR-, or B-deficient (R_d, FR_d, or B_d, respectively) photoperiods influenced stem extension and flowering in five LDP species: Campanula carpatica Jacq., Coreopsi ×grandiflora Hogg ex Sweet, Lobelia ×speciosa Sweet, Pisum sativum L., and Viola ×wittrockiana Gams. Plants were exposed to R_d, FR_d, B_d, or normal (control) 16-hour photoperiods, each of which had a similar photosynthetic (400 to 700 nm) photon flux. Compared with that of the control, the R_d environment promoted extension growth in C. carpatica (by 65%), C. ×grandiflora (by 26%), P. sativum (by 23%), and V. ×wittrockiana (by 31%). The FR_d environment suppressed extension growth in C. ×grandiflora (by 21%), P. sativum (by 17%), and V. ×wittrockiana (by 14%). Independent of the R: FR ratio, the B_d environment promoted stem extension (by 10% to 100%) in all species, but there was little or no effect on flowering percentage and time to flower. Extension growth was generally linearly related to the incident wide band (100 nm) R: FR ratio or estimated phytochrome photoequilibrium except when B light was specifically reduced. A high R: FR ratio (i.e., under the FR_d filter) delayed flower initiation (but not development) in C. carpatica and C.×grandiflora and inhibited flower development (but not initiation) in V.×wittrockiana. Therefore, B light and the R: FR ratio independently regulate extension growth by varying magnitudes in LDP, and in some species, an FR_d environment can suppress flower initiation or development.

The effects of sole-source lighting on the growth and yield of hydroponically grown lettuce have been extensively studied, but research of postharvest performance is limited. We grew frill-leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa) ‘Green Incised’ and ‘Hydroponic Green Sweet Crisp’ hydroponically in an indoor vertical research farm under daily light integrals (DLIs) of 12 or 18 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ and the following three ratios of blue (B; 400–499 nm) and red (R; 600–699 nm) light from light-emitting diode fixtures: B₅:R₉₅, B₂₀:R₈₀, and B₃₅:R₆₅. We postulated that biomass accumulation would increase with the DLI and decrease with the B light fraction, and that postharvest longevity would increase with the DLI and the B light fraction. As expected, shoot fresh weight, leaf length and width, leaf number, and relative chlorophyll content (SPAD; ‘Green Incised’ only) decreased as the proportion of B light increased from 5% to 35%. Decreasing the DLI from 18 to 12 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ reduced the shoot fresh weight and leaf number of both cultivars. Leaves of ‘Green Incised’ were up to 27% wider under B₅:R₉₅ and 60% longer under B₅:R₉₅ at 12 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ than those under treatments with a higher DLI or more B light. The shoot fresh weight of ‘Hydroponic Green Sweet Crisp’ was greatest when grown under B₅:R₉₅ at 18 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ and decreased as B light increased or DLI decreased. At the time of harvest, leaves of each cultivar and treatment were placed in clamshells and stored at 7 °C in darkness and evaluated for decay. ‘Green Incised’ that grew under B₃₅:R₆₅ and a DLI of 18 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ had the shortest storage life, with 9.5 d and 11.4 d for replications 1 and 2, respectively, which were ∼2.5 to 4.0 d and 1.4 to 3.6 d earlier, respectively, than the storage life of lettuce grown under other treatments. In contrast, ‘Hydroponic Green Sweet Crisp’ was not influenced by light quality or DLI and had a storage life of 12.6 to 13.3 d and 13.5 to 14.3 d for replications 1 and 2, respectively. Therefore, a B light fraction between 5% and 20% and a DLI of 18 mol⋅m⁻²⋅d⁻¹ produced high-yielding frill-leaf lettuce with a relatively long storage life.

Prohexadione-Ca (ProCa) is a relatively new plant growth regulator (PGR) that inhibits internode length in rice, small grains, and fruit trees. However, little is known about its efficacy and potential phytotoxicity on floriculture crops and how it compares to other commercially available PGR chemicals. The effects of two foliar spray applications (2 weeks apart) of ProCa (500, 1000, or 2000 ppm), paclobutrazol (30 ppm), or a tank mix of daminozide plus chlormequat (2500 and 1000 ppm, respectively) were quantified on Dianthus barbatus L. `Interspecific Dynasty Red', Ageratina altissima R. King & H. Robinson (Eupatorium rugosum) `Chocolate', Lilium longiflorum Thunb. `Fangio', and Buddleia davidii Franch. `Mixed.' All plants were forced in a glass-glazed greenhouse with a constant temperature setpoint of 20 °C under a 16-h photoperiod. Two weeks after the second spray application of ProCa at 500, 1000, or 2000 ppm, plant height of Dianthus and Lilium was shorter than control plants by 56%, 60%, and 65% and by 6%, 26%, and 28%, respectively. However, ProCa bleached and reduced the size of Dianthus flowers. ProCa at 2000 ppm and daminozide plus chlormequat were effective at controlling the height of Eupatorium (64% and 53% reduction, respectively); however, leaves of Eupatorium were discolored and showed symptoms of phytotoxicity 1 week after the first ProCa application. Only daminozide plus chlormequat were effective on Buddleia. ProCa is an effective PGR for most of the crops we tested; however, its discoloration of red flowers and foliage may limit its application for commercial use.