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Pesticide spray practices for citrus (Citrus spp.) in the Indian River region of Florida were surveyed in 2001 as the first step in identifying opportunities for improving efficiency and reducing potential environmental impact. The survey covered 73% of grapefruit (C. paradisi) acreage in Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin and Palm Beach counties, comprising 70% of all Indian River commercial grapefruit. Large differences in spray practices were revealed. The focus of this survey was grapefruit spraying, since grapefruit represent 59% of fresh citrus shipped from the Indian River region, and are sprayed more intensively than citrus fruit grown for processing. In commercial groves, almost all foliar sprays to grapefruit are applied using air-assisted sprayers pulled through the groves by tractors. Use of engine-driven and power-takeoff-driven sprayers were reported with equal frequency and accounted for 89% of spray machines used. Lowvolume Curtec sprayers comprised the remainder. Spray volume for grape-fruit varied: 7.6% of acreage was sprayed at 25 to 35 gal/acre (230 to 330 L·ha^-1) for all sprays; 4.2% was sprayed at 100 to 170 gal/acre (940 to 1600 L·ha^-1) for all sprays; 15.3% was sprayed at 200 to 380 gal/acre (1900 to 3600 L·ha^-1) for all sprays; 28.2% was sprayed at 450 to 750 gal/acre (4200 to 7000 L·ha^-1) for all sprays; and 44.5% of grapefruit acreage was sprayed in a progressive manner from lower to higher volume as the season progresses. Many mid and high spray volume growers reported unacceptable results when they lowered spray volume. Although correlation was moderate (r = 0.35 to 0.45), regressions indicated that both total foliar pesticide spray material costs, and annual fungicidal copper (Cu) use increased with spray volume used for postbloom fungicides. Mean Cu use per acre was in the middle of the recommended range. All growers reported adjusting nozzling for tree height within a grove, and since Indian River groves are bedded, growers adjusted sprayer output differently for trees on bed tops versus furrows on 85% of acreage. Sprayers were shut off for missing trees on 83% of acreage, but this was done only for two or more adjacent trees on almost half of this area. Sensor-actuated sprayers were used to minimize off-target application on 14.7% of grapefruit acreage, but for an additional 21% of acreage, growers reported trying and abandoning this technology. While 88% of grove acreage was sprayed during the day, 75% of acreage sprayed using less than 100 gal/acre was sprayed at night. Growers reported no defined protocol for ceasing spray operations based on environmental conditions.

Off-target deposition of pesticidal spray material is both an economic loss to the grower and a potential environmental problem in southern Florida. This study evaluated the reduction in non-target deposition of copper resulting from different approaches to spraying row-ends in typical Indian River citrus (Citrus) production systems. Using copper as a model pesticide, applications were made in a commercial citrus grove in June and July 2001. Non-target deposition on the water surface within an adjacent drainage canal, as well as on surrounding ground surfaces, was measured using Teflon spray targets. Specific row-end spraying scenarios included: 1) leaving both banks of nozzles on while turning; 2) turning the outside-facing nozzles off (leaving tree-facing nozzles on); 3) turning both banks of nozzles off at the tree trunk; and 4) turning all nozzles off at the end of the foliage of the last tree within the row. Deposition directly onto surface water contained within drainage canals was reduced significantly when nozzles were turned off at the last tree within a row, or when the outside-facing nozzles-only were turned off through the turn. Likewise, deposition was reduced on ground surfaces adjacent to the sprayer under the same scenarios. No differences were observed on ground surfaces on the opposite side of the canal. Significant reductions in direct application of agrichemicals to surface waters within Indian River citrus production groves can be achieved by turning nozzles off when turning from one tree row into the next.

Hundreds of fruit thinning experiments have been reported for various fruits including apple (Malus × domestica) and citrus (Citrus spp.). Unfortunately, very few of these reports attempt to evaluate the economic implications of thinning. Researchers routinely report significant cropload reduction accompanied by an increase in fruit size. Although these are crucial responses to thinning, they are not always associated with an increase in crop value, which is the commercial justification for thinning. The few economic studies summarized in this review illustrate that the economic effects of fruit thinning vary widely, and successful thinning often reduces returns to the grower, at least in the year of treatment. It is important to quantify the economic benefits of thinning and identify croploads that balance the trade-off between yield and fruit size to provide optimal crop value. Future thinning research should report total yields and fruit size distributions to permit economic assessments and comparisons of treatments.

The severe citrus (Citrus sp.) disease Huanglongbing (HLB), associated with Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, has resulted in widespread tree decline in Florida and overall citrus production is now the lowest it has been in 50 years. More than 80% of Florida citrus trees are HLB affected, and most growers attempt to sustain production on infected trees through good asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri) control and enhanced fertilization and irrigation management. Although production appears to benefit from these treatments, preharvest fruit drop is considerably greater than on uninfected trees. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) data indicate that Florida statewide fruit drop has increased by 10% to 20% of the entire crop in the last three growing seasons, essentially doubling the historical levels. Extensive research is underway to identify solutions to HLB, but it is essential to maintain production on existing trees to sustain the industry in the near term. For decades, several plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been labeled to reduce preharvest fruit drop in commercial citrus. Trials of these materials, other nonlabeled PGRs, and some fungicides were conducted in two seasons to determine if fruit drop could be reduced. Randomized complete block design experiments were established using four to six replications of four- to six-tree groups as experimental units, blocked spatially. In 2013–14, sprays of gibberellic acid (GA), 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), S-abscisic acid (S-ABA), aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) were applied once or twice alone or in some combinations at standard rates to trees in various mature blocks of ‘Valencia’ and ‘Pineapple’ sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), ‘Star Ruby’ grapefruit (Citrus paradisi), or ‘Murcott’ tangor (Citrus reticulata ×C. sinensis) in central Florida in the Indian River area. Only 1 of the 10 individual trials had treatments with significantly lower drop rates than controls; and when pooled across all experiments, GA + 2,4-D reduced number of fruit dropped per tree 4%, but only at P = 0.10. NAA, S-ABA, AVG, and 1-MCP had no effect and were not used the following year. Starting in 2014, treatments were initiated earlier in the season with greater effort to minimize variability: GA; 2,4-D; GA + 2,4-D; a natural GA, indolebutyric acid, cytokinin mix; and strobilurin fungicides were applied to 22 mature blocks of ‘Hamlin’ and ‘Valencia’ sweet orange trees. In 2014–15, only three of the 11 individual ‘Hamlin’ trials and one of the 11 ‘Valencia’ trials included a treatment with significant drop reduction compared with controls. However, when all the tests on ‘Hamlin’ were pooled, there was a significant 5% reduction in total crop drop for GA + 2,4-D and significant reductions with many of these PGRs alone, but in only one case with fungicide treatments. When all tests on ‘Valencia’ were combined, 2,4-D reduced drop significantly but only by 2% of the total crop (14% drop vs. 16% drop), but fruit drop in ‘Valencia’ blocks was near the historical average in control trees. Soil conditions and tree conditions were similar across all test sites and there were no apparent relationships between product efficacy and observed tree condition or any other grove characteristics. In addition, four ‘Hamlin’ and four ‘Valencia’ blocks were treated with 1/4 rates of 2,4-D + 6-benzyladenine every 45 days during the growing season (six sprays) and three of the eight individual trials showed significant reductions in drop: when pooled, these treatments reduced drop by 3% in ‘Valencia’ and 6% in ‘Hamlin’. At this time, PGRs cannot be recommended as a consistent way to reduce fruit drop related to HLB, but further work needs to be conducted to refine the most promising treatments.

Although citrus (Citrus spp.) is sensitive to salinity, acceptable production can be achieved with moderate salinity levels, depending on the climate, scion cultivar, rootstock, and irrigation-fertilizer management. Irrigation scheduling is a key factor in managing salinity in areas with salinity problems. Increasing irrigation frequency and applying water in excess of the crop water requirement are recommended to leach the salts and minimize the salt concentration in the root zone. Overhead sprinkler irrigation should be avoided when using water containing high levels of salts because salt residues can accumulate on the foliage and cause serious injury. Much of the leaf and trunk damage associated with direct foliar uptake of salts can be reduced by using microirrigation systems. Frequent fertilization using low rates is recommended through fertigation or broadcast application of dry fertilizers. Nutrient sources should have a relatively low salt index and not contain chloride (Cl) or sodium (Na). In areas where Na accumulates in soils, application of calcium (Ca) sources (e.g., gypsum) has been found to reduce the deleterious effect of Na and improve plant growth under saline conditions. Adapting plants to saline environments and increasing salt tolerance through breeding and genetic manipulation is another important method for managing salinity.

In spring 1999, a commercial NAA (1-naphthaleneacetic acid) preparation for trunk sprout inhibition was compared with a corrugated plastic trunk wrap, aluminum foil wrap, bimonthly hand removal of sprouts, use of NAA preparation plus bimonthly hand removal when sprouts appeared, and a nontreated control. Three recently planted groves on three different rootstocks [`Midsweet' orange (Citrus sinensis)] on Swingle citrumelo (Citrus paradisi × Poncirus trifoliata), `Valencia' orange on Volkamer lemon (Volk, Citrus limon), and `Minneola' tangelo (Citrus paradisi × C. reticulata) on Smooth Flat Seville (SFS, Citrus hybrid) received each of the treatments in a randomized complete block experimental design with trees blocked by initial height and circumference. Every 2 months, sprouts were counted on each tree and removed from the hand removal treatments. After 1 year, all sprouts were removed and counted and height and circumference of trees was determined. Across all experiments, 82% to 100% of nontreated trees produced trunk sprouts and all sprout control methods significantly reduced sprouts per tree. NAA treatments were never significantly less effective at sprout suppression than the wraps at the P = 0.05 level, although in two experiments, wraps were more effective than NAA at P = 0.10. Time of sprout appearance varied between the three experimental blocks. Plastic and foil trunk wraps enhanced development of trunk circumference compared with nontreated controls in `Midsweet'/Swingle and `Valencia'/Volk. Greater trunk circumference resulted from use of wraps versus NAA in all three experiments, which appeared unrelated to differential sprout suppression. In these experiments, it appears that either wraps enhanced tree development beyond the suppression of sprouts or NAA influence on tree metabolism somewhat reduced trunk growth. The economics of the sprout suppression methods are also discussed.

This study was initiated to determine if prebloom sprays of B, Zn, and urea would enhance cropping of apple (Malus×domestica Borkh.) after cold injury, hypothesizing that they may accelerate recovery of damaged vascular tissue. The following foliar nutrient treatments were applied prebloom to `McIntosh' and `Empire' trees at two sites in 1994 and 1995: 1) control; 2) B (22.8 mm) at half-inch-green; 3) Zn-EDTA (0.75 mm) at half-inch-green; 4) B and Zn-EDTA at half-inch-green; 5) B, Zn-EDTA, and urea (59.4 mm) at half-inch-green; 6) B and Zn-EDTA at half-inch-green, followed by B, Zn-EDTA, and urea at pink. In 1994, following a very severe winter that caused visible damage to vascular tissue, `Empire' at both sites cropped more heavily following all treatments that included both B and Zn; such treatments increased cropload by an average of 22% and 35% at the two test sites. Despite a mild winter preceding the 1995 season, prebloom nutrient treatments again increased cropping of `Empire'. In 1996, treatments included a control and a single foliar treatment (B + Zn-EDTA at half-inch-green followed by B, Zn-EDTA, and urea at pink) on `McIntosh' and `Empire' at seven orchard sites. Treatment enhanced cropping in `McIntosh' at three of the seven sites, but there was no effect on `Empire'. Factors influencing differences in response were not apparent from this study, although a complex of factors may be involved. Data for all years indicated that prebloom nutrients did not enhance spur leaf development or fruit set; such treatments probably enhance cropping by increasing retention of flower buds that would otherwise abscise before anthesis. Where cropping was increased, mean fruit weight was not reduced at P ≤ 0.05 but fruit weight was significantly less at P ≤ 0.10 in 1995. Chemical names used: boron (Solubor, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate); zinc (Zn-EDTA, zinc chelate).

Two years of field experiments were conducted in eastern New York to evaluate the efficacy of a multi-step thinning approach on reducing crop load (no. fruit per cm² trunk cross-sectional area) and increasing fruit size of 'Empire' apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.). Applications of Endothall (ET) at 80% bloom, NAA + carbaryl (CB) at petal fall (PF), and Accel™ + CB at 10 mm king fruitlet diameter (KFD), alone and in all combinations, were compared to a nonthinned control and to the application of NAA + CB at 10 mm KFD (commercial standard). In both 1996 and 1997, orthogonal contrasts indicated the multi-step treatment significantly increased fruit size, reduced cropload, and reduced yield compared to single applications. Effects on cropload of consecutive treatments were largely predicted by multiplying effects of individual treatments. Although all thinning treatments except for NAA + CB at PF in 1997 significantly reduced cropload, no single treatment thinned sufficiently to ensure good return bloom. Compared to NAA + CB at 10 mm KFD, multi-step thinning with NAA + CB at PF followed by Accel™ + CB at 10 mm KFD produced bigger fruits in both years, and resulted in a higher percentage of spurs carrying a single fruit in 1996. When fruit size was evaluated after removing the effect of cropload (cropload adjusted fruit weight), NAA + CB at PF, Accel™ + CB at 10 mm, and the two applied sequentially, resulted in greater cropload adjusted fruit weight than the nonthinned control in both years, whereas NAA + CB at 10 mm did not. Contrast analysis of treatments with and without ET showed no significant effect of including ET on fruit size, though total cropload was reduced at P = 0.10 and total yield was reduced (P = 0.03 in 1996 and P = 0.12 in 1997). No deleterious effects from multi-step treatments have been observed. All thinning treatments significantly increased return bloom in 1996 and 1997 compared to the control with little difference observed between treatments. Chemical names used: naphthalene acetic acid (NAA); 1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate [carbaryl (CB)]; 6-benzyladenine [BA (Accel™)]; 7-oxabicyclo (2,2,1) heptane-2,3 dicarboxylic acid [ET (Endothall™)]

Currently, 94% of California fig production is dried or otherwise processed, but there is interest in expanding fresh fig sales. Since cultivars dominating the industry were largely selected for dried fig use, the fig collection of the National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR) in Winters, Calif., was screened for traits of interest in fresh fruit production. For some traits, the bearing collection of 137 accessions was screened, while for most traits, data was collected on a core group of 30 accessions. While current commercial cultivars feature flavors of honey or caramel, some NCGR accessions have bright fruity flavors, reminiscent of berries or citrus, as well as noticeable acidity. Considerable variation was observed for time of maturity. Breba (figs on previous year's wood ripe in June/July) production was markedly greater in `King' than in any other core-group genotype, with ≈3× more fruit per branch than the next most breba-productive variety and 8× higher than the commercial standards. Earliness of ripening in the large collection was most pronounced in `Yellow Neches', `Orphan', and `Santa Cruz Dark', with 3× as many ripe fruit per tree in early August as the earliest commercial standard. Several commercial standards scored among the varieties with greatest late-season production (≈200 fruit per tree ripe after mid-September), comparing favorably with `Zidi', `Panachee', and `Ischia Black', among others. The SSC at commercial ripeness ranged from 13% to 19%, and SSC at tree-ripeness averaged 30% higher than in commercially ripe fruit. Several accessions were observed to have fruit traits that might also contribute to sustained quality through market channels.