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The role of spur leaves in bud and fruit development on two spur-type `Delicious' apple strains (Malus domestica Borkh.) and factors affecting spur development were studied. Reducing spur leaf area on vegetative spurs in August reduced the number of spurs that flowered the following year but did not affect flower size. On spurs that did flower, leaf area reduction the previous year did not influence leaf number or area, but the bourse shoot leaf area was reduced. Spur bud diameter, leaf area, size, specific leaf weight (SLW), and leaf dry weight were larger on 2-year-old vegetative spurs than on 1- or 3-year-old spurs. Within each age section of a limb, spur leaf number, area, size, SLW, and bud diameter decreased from the apical to basal positions on the limb. Flower number did not vary within a limb section, but fruit set was lower on the most apical and basal spurs compared to midshoot spurs. Fruit size was largest at the apical end of each limb section and was smallest at basal positions. These relationships were not affected by strain, tree age, or orchard location. Summer pruning at 30 days after bloom tended to increase leaf number, area, size, and spur length compared to unpruned trees or pruning later in the season but did not influence spur bud diameter.
Greenhouse grown `Lawspur Rome'/M.111 trained to single shoots were given the following shade (73%) treatments: 1) sun-all-day (control), 2) shade in the morning (am-shade), 3) shade in the afternoon (pm-shade) and 4) shade-all-day. All shade treatments increased shoot length and decreased dry weight/leaf area (DW/LA). Shade-all-day increased leaf no., LA/leaf and shoot dia. DW partitioning to leaves in shade-all-day was 19% greater than control and to roots was 34% less than control. Pn of am-shade did not increase in the afternoon when PFD was maximal. Saturated net photosynthesis (Pn) was 72% of control in am-shade, 84% of control in pm-shade and 62% in shade-all-day. Shade reduced Pn by 40% of control.
Defoliation by pests was simulated with potted tree model systems and field-grown trees. `Redchief'/M.7 apple trees were grown in 10 1 pots as a single shoot. Forty-five days after 25%, 50%, or 75% removal of apical or basal leaf number, new leaf dry weight (produced after treatment) was 23%, 53%, and 45% higher, respectively, for apically treated trees, and -7%, 61%, and 64% higher for basally treated trees, than control trees. Root dry weight was reduced by as much as 59% (apical 75% removed). Photosynthesis following 75% leaf removal was inhibited 1 day after treatment, but increased above the control within 3 days. However, by 35 days after treatment photosynthesis had declined to 53% of control. Leaf removal (50%) June 15 (1990) of 4-year old `Early Granny'/Mark increased net photosynthesis by 40% within 8 days of treatment. Trunk cross-sectional area increase of June- and twice-(June 15 and July 30) defoliated trees was 35% of control trees. Leaf nitrogen content (% dry wt.) in September was 1.75 for twice-defoliated trees compared to 1.58 for control trees.
Gas exchange (assimilation, transpiration, water use efficiency, and conductance) of `Shawnee' blackberry were measured under field conditions with a portable system (ADC-IRGA with Parkinson Leaf Chamber). Gas exchange primocane pentifoliate leaflets were similar. Gas exchange rates of leaves along a cane exhibited a quadratic function of leaf position with leaves in lower-mid sections (relative position 0.3 - 0.5) having higher A, TR, WUE, gs than either basal or apical leaves. Leaves subtending fruiting laterals on fruiticanes had higher assimilation than similar age leaves on primocanes but did not differ in Tr, WUE, or gs. Primocanes had estimated dark respiration rates of 0.33mg·dm-1.hr-1, estimated light compensation at 14-20 mol.m-2.s-1, estimated light saturation at 1000-1100 mol.m-2.s-1 with maximum A rates ranging from 24-30 mg CO2.dm-1.hr-1. Measurements were made at field temperatures ranging from 24-35 C. Although temperature response was not measured, correlation indicated that Tr, WUE, and gs were more closely related to temperature than A. Similarly, Tr and WUE were more closely related to gs than A (r = 0.6 to 0.8).
`Apache' blackberry planted in 3-m plots spaced at 0.6 m between plants were maintained either with or without waste municipal wood chip mulch and grown for 5 years. Plots received similar weed control, pest management, and irrigation. All plots were annually hedged at 1.35-m height twice during midsummer to encourage branching. Fruit were harvested beginning in the second season after a season of establishment. Annual yield in the mulched plots was 15% greater, average fruit size was 4% larger, and cumulative yield was 9% greater in the mulched plots compared to nonmulched control plots. In two seasons, average berry soluble solids content of fruit from mulched plots was slightly, but not significantly higher. Annual primocane number was 33% greater, floricane number 41% greater, floricane dry weight after harvest was 15% greater, and average plant height before summer pruning was 24% taller in mulched plots compared to nonmulched plots. Mulch significantly reduced weeds within the plots.
Small fruit production in the southern United States has been impacted greatly by fruit breeders this century. This workshop, co-sponsored by the American Pomological Society, includes presentations from individuals who have contributed collectively over 150 years to small fruit and grape breeding. James N. Moore has conducted breeding at the University of Arkansas, developing 30 cultivars. His presentation on brambles outlines achievements and future opportunities for improvement. Arlen Draper has been involved with the development of 61 small fruit cultivars while working with the USDA-ARS with an emphasis on blueberry. His presentation focuses on blueberry breeding and provides insights into the future of new blueberry cultivar developments. Gene Galletta has conducted small fruit breeding at North Carolina State University and USDA-ARS and has been involved with the development of 50 cultivars. His presentation reflects on the history of strawberry breeding in the South and the challenges that lie ahead. Ron Lane has served as a fruit breeder and horticulturist at the University of Georgia Experiment Station at Griffin and his work has emphasized the development of muscadine grape cultivars. The past and future of muscadine and bunch grape breeding is discussed in his paper. Articles from all authors in this workshop will be published in Fruit Varieties Journal in 1997.
The effects of six freestanding training systems (Open Center, Untrained, 2-Scaffold V, 4-Scaffold V, Leaning V, and Central Leader at tree densities of 161, 161, 245, 375, 375, and 300 trees/acre, respectively) on yield and tree growth of `Redhaven' on Lovell rootstock were evaluated. Open-center and untrained trees were largest and had greatest yields per tree. The 2-scaffold V had the greatest production in kilograms per acre. Early productivity was related to tree density and pruning severity, not tree size. Training systems had no effect on fruit size.
Light distribution in two cultivars on three dwarfing rootstocks in three high-density apple tree training systems was measured in the sixth leaf beginning at full bloom and continuing through the season. Training system had a significant effect on light penetration into the lowest point of the canopy (measured at 0.5 m), with the slender spindle being significantly darker than either the central leader or the vertical axis, although all three systems were below the threshold value of 30% full sun (FS) needed to maintain productivity for most of the season. Cultivar had no significant effect; however, trees of both `Jonagold' and `Empire' fell below 20% FS early in the season and remained there until late in the season. Rootstock had the greatest effect, with trees on M9 and M26 being significantly darker in the lower canopy than trees on Mark. Trees on M26 and M9 fell below 10% FS early in the season and remained there, while trees on Mark never fell below 20% FS.
Alternate bloom thinners are needed for apple are needed to replace compounds which can no longer be used or have production system limitations. The effects of 24 chemicals selected as osmotic agents, organic acids, oils, essential oils, or potential metabolic agents and their properties of pH, electrical potential (EP) and water potential were tested in vitro on `Gala' apple pollen germination, tube growth and pistil damage. Solution concentrations of 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, and 10% were prepared and solution pH, EP, and water potential measured. To test affects on germination, pollen was placed on agar germination media in petri dishes and then treated with 10: l of chemical solution. Percentage pollen germination and tube growth was calculated 4, 12, and 24 h after treatment. Excised pistils from forced flowers were placed on glass filter papers saturated with chemical solution. Pistil damage was visually, subjectively rated for damage indicated by discoloration 24 h after treatment. Effects of solution pH, EP and water potential on pollen germination, tube growth and pistil damage was significant with pH less than ∂4.0 or greater than ∂10.0, EP > 200mv, or water potential less than ∼4.0MPa inhibited pollen germination, growth, and killed pistils. Several chemical had apparent metabolic effects beyond the chemical effects mentioned above. In vitro tests were correlated to in vivo field tests in other studies indicating the use of pollen and pistil in vitro as a useful model for screening potential alternative thinning agents.
Trunk cross-sectional area (TCA) has been used to estimate leaf area (LA) and yield efficiency but variation in LA and TCA relationships have been unexplored. LA and TCA of 10-yr-old 'Starkspur Supreme Delicious' on 9 rootstocks (STKs) were measured in 1989. LA and TCA of 2-yr-old trees of 3 cultivars (CVs) on 5 STKs were measured in 1991. Regression of LA and TCA was performed for each CV, STK and each CV/STK. On mature trees, LA varied significantly with STK. The number and LA of shoot leaves (LVS) and spur LVS varied with STK but the % of total was not significantly different (approx. 52% spur LVS). The relationships of LA and TCA were linear for mature (r2=.94) and young (r2=.44) trees. On young trees, TCA varied with CV, but LA did not. Both LA and TCA were significantly different among STKs. The linear relationships of LA and TCA had unique intercepts with each CV, STK and CV/STK combination but slopes were not significantly different. Leaf area of Jonagold' and 'Gala' tended to increase more with increasing TCA than 'Empire'.