Abstract
The majority of strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa) production in Florida, USA, uses bare-root transplants that require large volumes of water via sprinkler irrigation for establishment. Although plug transplants can be established without sprinkler irrigation, they generally are more than double the cost of bare-root transplants. We hypothesized that the use of early-planted (September) plug transplants on white-on-black mulch without impact sprinkler irrigation (WP system) would be more profitable and conserve water compared with the typical grower standard practice of black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants planted in mid-October that were established using impact sprinkler irrigation for heat mitigation for 12 d after transplanting (BB system). ‘Florida Radiance’ plug transplants and bare-root transplants were used in the 2-year study that was conducted at Citra and Balm, FL, USA. Water use and early and total strawberry yield of the two systems were compared. Water use in both locations was lower with the WP system than the BB system. Early yield was higher by 683 and 346 8-lb flats/acre with the WP system at Citra and Balm, respectively, compared with the BB system. The total marketable yield with the WP system was 2062 flats/acre and 1917 flats/acre greater at Citra and Balm, respectively, than with the BB system. Partial budget analysis indicated that the WP system at Citra increased the net profit by $14,657/acre, whereas a net profit of $13,765/acre was obtained at Balm. These results will inform decision-making about cropping system modification that can be adopted by Florida strawberry growers to considerably reduce water use in an economically feasible manner.
Historically, Florida, USA strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa) growers have used the annual hill system with black plastic mulch, drip tape, and bare-root transplants. The dates of digging and shipping of bare-root transplants can vary with cultivar. As a result, transplanting usually occurs during the last week of September through mid-October when air temperatures are still high in west-central Florida where the industry is concentrated. To prevent desiccation and death of bare-root transplants Florida growers use sprinkler irrigation for 10 to 14 d after transplanting to cool the black plastic mulch during strawberry establishment. Strawberry establishment from bareroot transplants can use as much as 219,772 gal/acre of water with sprinkler irrigation, which is one-third of the total water required for strawberry production in Florida (Albregts and Howard 1985). With growing demand on the region’s water resources, more sustainable water use is warranted.
The Florida strawberry industry produces for the winter market and is being challenged by market incursions from California, USA, and from Mexico (Wu et al. 2015). Earlier planting to take advantage of higher prices for early fruit has been proposed for stabilizing the Florida strawberry industry. However, early planting in Florida exposes strawberry transplants to heat stress. The use of strawberry plug transplants is proposed as a means of reducing or eliminating the high sprinkler irrigation requirement for bare-root transplant establishment. It is anticipated that strawberry plug transplants established earlier in the season would increase the availability of winter strawberries for the Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Hanukkah holidays can result in price premiums that can accommodate the higher cost of plug transplants and improve the economic viability of the industry.
The use of plug transplants can considerably decrease the amount of water that is required for the establishment of transplants (Santos et al. 2012). Strawberry nurseries are beginning to show interest in the commercial production of plug transplants of the cultivars that were bred for Florida (e.g., Production Lareault Inc., Lavaltrie, Canada). Currently, two plug transplant types are available: either transplants grown in individual hydrated coco coir pellets [Jiffy-7® coco pellets; Jiffy Products of America Inc., Lorain, OH, USA (hereafter referred to as coco coir plug transplants)] or transplants grown in trays with loose peat-based media (tray plugs) (Fig. 1). Plug transplants establish more quickly under field conditions than bare-root transplants due to less early establishment stress, and they also use less water for their establishment (Bish et al. 2001; Dash et al. 2020; Durner 1999; Grout and Millam 1985; Hochmuth et al. 1998; Poling 1993; Poling and Maas 2000). Planting bareroot transplants requires more labor than plug transplants because bare-root transplants are planted by hand, whereas plug transplants can be mechanically planted (Durner et al. 2002).
(A) Fresh-dug bare-root transplants are the predominant strawberry transplant type used in Florida, USA. (B) Coco coir plug transplants grown in individual hydrated coco coir pellets are shown on the left and tray plugs grown in 50-cell trays with loose peat-based media are on the right.
Citation: HortTechnology 33, 6; 10.21273/HORTTECH05171-23
(A) Fresh-dug bare-root transplants are the predominant strawberry transplant type used in Florida, USA. (B) Coco coir plug transplants grown in individual hydrated coco coir pellets are shown on the left and tray plugs grown in 50-cell trays with loose peat-based media are on the right.
Citation: HortTechnology 33, 6; 10.21273/HORTTECH05171-23
(A) Fresh-dug bare-root transplants are the predominant strawberry transplant type used in Florida, USA. (B) Coco coir plug transplants grown in individual hydrated coco coir pellets are shown on the left and tray plugs grown in 50-cell trays with loose peat-based media are on the right.
Citation: HortTechnology 33, 6; 10.21273/HORTTECH05171-23
Because of their more robust root system, plug transplants may have the potential to provide greater early strawberry yields, and thus more profit to the producer. Hochmuth et al. (2006) reported that ‘Sweet Charlie’ strawberry plug transplants began flowering at 3 weeks after transplanting, but bare-root transplants required a longer time to flower. One explanation for this difference is the quality of the root systems of plug transplants compared with bare-root transplants. Strawberry plug transplants are grown from rooted runner tips, and when they are transplanted into the field, their roots are still embedded in a growing medium are intact and allow for rapid establishment compared with bare-root transplants with exposed, damaged roots (Bish et al. 2001, 2002).
Even with intact root systems, early planting (mid- to late September) of plug transplants on black plastic mulch can result in heat stress and adverse effects on yield (Dash et al. 2020). We have previously described the evaluation of physical and chemical methods to alleviate heat stress in early-planted strawberry plug transplants (Dash et al. 2022). Although the best treatment combination for alleviating heat stress was white-on-black mulch, coco coir plug transplants, and foliar application of kaolin clay; it was apparent from treatments with black plastic mulch and foliar-applied kaolin that the effect of the kaolin clay appeared to be due to its effects of essentially spray-painting the black plastic mulch white. Therefore, in assessing the cost of adopting the new technology in the current work, we focus on just two elements: the white-on-black plastic mulch and the plug transplants. Due to the higher cost of the new technology, it was necessary to perform an economic analysis to determine whether the amount of increased early yield will compensate for the higher cost of the plug transplants and the white-on-black mulch.
New technology can be assessed in terms of its impact on the productivity, effectiveness, convenience, and sustainability of a farming system (Cornelisse and Hyde 2017). Alimi and Alofe (1992) reported that farmers are always making changes in their farms for optimal effectiveness and accommodation of unceasing variation between seasons and over time. Often, these choices include activities to boost the monetary return of the farm. A farmer’s change in production practices can have a strong impact on farm viability and competitiveness in the larger market. Therefore, the choice of production practices may make the difference between profit and loss for that business. Partial budgeting is an effective tool for assessing the costs and benefits related to a precise change in a farm. This tool explicitly focuses on the consequences of the projected change in a farming operation by comparing the costs and benefits of executing the substitute with respect to the previous system (El-Deep Soha 2014; Tigner 2018). This budgeting style is referred to as partial because it does not include all costs but only those that are altered from the farmer’s present production practices to the projected practices.
In the present study, it was hypothesized that the combined use of early-planted coco coir plug strawberry transplants and the heat stress management practice of white-on-black mulch (WP system) would be an effective strategy for water conservation and higher early yield, which due to a higher price and decreased irrigation cost would be more profitable than the grower standard practice of black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants planted in mid-October and impact sprinkler irrigation for 12 d after transplanting (BB system). Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to compare the effects of the new WP system and the grower standard BB system on water use and early yield and to determine whether the net profit justifies the higher costs of plug transplants and heat-stress mitigation measures.
Methods
Location and plant materials
Field trials were conducted at the Plant Science Research and Education Unit (PSREU) in Citra, FL, USA (lat. 29.41°N, long. 82.11°W) and at the Gulf Coast Research and Education Center (GCREC) in Balm, FL, USA (lat. 27°75′N, long. 82°22′E) during the 2016–17 and 2017–18 growing seasons. The experiment at PSREU was located on Candler sand (hyperthermic, uncoated Lamellic Quartzipsamments) [US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) 2013a]. The soil at GCREC is classified as Myakka fine sand (sandy, siliceous, hyperthermic Aeric Alaquods) (USDA, NRCS 2013b). Two types of ‘Florida Radiance’ strawberry transplants were evaluated. Coco coir plug transplants were received with their roots embedded in individual hydrated coco coir pellets (Jiffy-7® coco pellets) and fresh dug, bare-root transplants (Production Lareault Inc.) (Fig. 1). Forty strawberry plug transplants per plot at Citra and 24 transplants per plot at Balm were planted in two offset rows spaced 15 inches apart. The within-row spacing was also 15 inches.
Bed preparation and management
The fields were prepared by tillage to an approximate depth of 10 inches with a moldboard plow (John Deere 975; Deere and Company, Moline, IL, USA) followed by secondary tillage [Citra: KMC 2100 S-tyne field cultivator (Kelley Manufacturing Co., Tifton, GA, USA); Balm: BP421 double disk (Kenco Manufacturing Inc., Atoka, OK, USA)]. Three weeks before transplanting, raised beds [Citra: 8 inches tall × 30 inches wide, Balm: 8 inches tall × 32 inches (base), 28 inches (top) wide] were prepared and fumigated with 117 lb/acre 1,3 dichloropropene + 178.8 lb/acre chloropicrin (Pic-Clor 60; Trical, Inc., Hollister, CA, USA) and 1-mil-thick white-on-black and black plastic mulch films (Intergro Co., Clearwater, FL, USA) were applied immediately after soil fumigation.
Cropping systems
Two cropping systems were compared. The new technology consisting of the white-on-black mulch and coco coir plug transplant treatment combination, henceforth referred to as the WP system, was compared with the standard grower practice of bare-root transplants on black plastic mulch (BB system) established using impact sprinkler irrigation. The ‘Florida Radiance’ plug transplants for the WP system were planted in the white-on-black plastic mulch plots on 13 Sep 2016 and 6 Sep 2017 at Citra and on 28 Sep 2016 and 29 Sep 2017 at Balm, which is earlier than the typical planting time for planting ‘Florida Radiance’ in Florida and received no sprinkler irrigation to promote establishment. The bare-root ‘Florida Radiance’ strawberry transplants were planted in adjacent plots mulched with the standard black plastic mulch used in Florida’s annual hill system on 14 Oct 2016 and 9 Oct 2017 at Citra and 14 Oct 2016 and 13 Oct 2017 at Balm. These planting dates were typical for ‘Florida Radiance’, which is a heat sensitive cultivar. Immediately after transplanting, to prevent transplant desiccation and facilitate establishment, the bare-root transplants were irrigated with grower standard impact sprinklers (WR-33; Wade Rain Irrigation System, Miami, FL, USA) at 50 psi with 48.6 gal/acre and run 8 h per day for 12 d. Both the WP and the BB systems were replicated four times.
Crop management
Crop maintenance included periodic runner removal, management of weeds emerging through the mulch and planting holes, and within the row middles. Drip irrigation of 40 min per application until December, and 60 min per application from January through February twice per day (0.25 gal/min per emitter) when plants were larger. Drip irrigation was initiated on the day of planting for the WP system and on day 13 after transplanting for the BB system.
The water used by each cropping system was measured with water meters (DLJ100; Daniel L. Jerman Co., Hackensack, NJ, USA). The nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) requirements were based on statewide recommendations and preplant soil test analysis (Santos et al. 2013). The strawberry transplants received ∼133 lb/acre of N through the drip irrigation system during the growing seasons. Fertilizer (6N–0.9P–6.6K; Mayo Fertilizer, Plant City, FL, USA) was applied once per week using a portable injection system (Chemical Containers Inc., Lake Wales, FL, USA) beginning 1 week after transplanting (WAT) for the WP system and after the 12-d transplant establishment period for the BB system.
Disease and pest infestation were monitored periodically and were managed according to commercial standards (Santos et al. 2013). Foliar disease levels were considered minimal. Mefenoxam at 0.5 lb/acre (Ridomil Gold® SL; Syngenta, Greensboro, NC, USA) was applied at 1 and 2 months after transplanting via the drip irrigation system to control soilborne fungal diseases during the 2017–18 season. In the 2016–17 growing season, no mefenoxam was applied as a preventive measure, and some bare-root transplants died due to an infestation of Phytophthora sp. root rot at both locations. Dead plants were not replanted. Due to lower-than-expected yields at Balm in 2016–17, only the 2017–18 yield data were used for the economic analysis. Fungicides such as N-trichloromethylthio-4-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximide at 2 lb/acre (Captec 4L®; Arysta LifeScience North America, LLC, Cary, NC, USA) were used to manage botrytis fruit rot (Botrytis cinerea) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum acutatum). Bifenazate at 1/2 lb/acre (Acramite® 50WS; Chemtura Corp., Philadelphia, PA, USA) was applied as a foliar application to control two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) at Citra. Predatory mites [Neoseiulus californicus (Spical; Koppert Biological Systems, Howell, MI, USA)] at 2.48 mite/ft2 were applied for the biological control of two-spotted spider mites at Citra.
Data collection
Water requirements for strawberry production and early and total marketable yields were assessed. Strawberries were harvested by hand early in the day while air temperatures were cool, every 3 to 4 d. The fruit was harvested at commercial maturity after >80% of the fruit surface turned a uniform red color. Immediately after harvest, strawberries were sorted into marketable and cull fruit. Marketable fruit size merited at least a grade of US No. 1 [USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) 2006]. Data were collected from inner plants within each row to avoid border effects. The total weight of fruit from 15 sample plants was measured separately from each plot. The fruit yields were divided into two categories: early yield (fruit harvested from October to December) and total yield. The yield was expressed as the number of 8-lb flats of fruit per acre.
Economic assessment
A partial budget analysis was conducted summarizing the changes in revenue and expenses between production using a combination of white-on-black mulch, plug transplants and kaolin with no sprinkler at establishment and production using a combination of black mulch and bare-root transplants with standard sprinkler irrigation. In Florida, farmworkers are usually paid by the hour, but strawberry pickers are paid by an individual flat rate, and the rate differs within the season depending upon the time of harvest. During the early season (November to December), the fruit yield is lower, but a higher harvesting price must be paid to meet the minimum wage rate. In 2016, the mean wage for farmworkers was $10.38/h (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2016). In 2017, strawberry pickers were paid an average of $2.5/flat in the early part of the season (Wu et al. 2018). As the season advances, yield increases gradually and less time is required to harvest a flat, and labor cost per flat reduces significantly. However, in 2017 the price per packed box with clamshells and the unit cost of cooling was a constant $2.49 (Guan et al. 2017). For the purposes of this study, the weekly weighted average price from 2013–17 was used to analyze revenue. The early (November to December) grower weekly weighted average price varied from $11.07 to $23.50 per flat whereas later in the season (January to February) the grower weekly weighted average price was $8.59 to $13.20 per flat (USDA, AMS 2020). The value of strawberry was calculated every week, and the grower weekly weighted average price per week was obtained from the USDA AMS website. The cost for black mulch was $360/acre, whereas white-on-black mulch was $80/acre more than black mulch for a total of $440/acre. Irrigation cost includes pumping, operating, maintaining, repairing the system, and the cost of electricity, which totaled $22.50/acre-inch (Bolda et al. 2016). The BB system irrigation cost was $983/acre ($43.7/acre-inch) at Citra and $970/acre ($43.1/acre-inch) at Balm, which was $364/acre ($27.5/acre-inch) and $428/acre ($23.9/acre-inch) higher than the irrigation for the WP system. The transplant cost was $2646/acre for bare-root (at $147 per 1000 plants), whereas $3816/acre more was required to purchase plug transplants for a total of $6462/acre (at $359 per 1000 plants if buying >10,000–24,999 plants). The labor cost for transplanting was $102/acre lower in the WP system than in the bare-root system. Equipment, materials, and labor cost for disease and pest control were reduced by $376/acre in total in the WP system compared with the BB system.
Statistical analysis
Recorded data were analyzed statistically using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS (ver. 9.4; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) and least squares mean separation was done with Student’s t test at P ≤ 0.05. Data analysis for economic evaluation was performed using a spreadsheet program (Microsoft Excel 2016; Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, USA).
Results and discussion
Early and total yield
Early fruit receives the highest prices and contributes the most to the income of strawberry growers in Florida. Early fruit can be worth as much as $11.08 to $23.50 per flat of strawberries. Fruit response from the early (November to December) harvest period at Citra and Balm was higher in the WP system than in the BB system (Table 1). Average early marketable yield was lower in the bare-root system compared with the WP system, because bare-root transplants were planted 1 month later. However, the total season yield was also higher in the WP system compared with the BB system in both locations. The yield of bare-root transplants was significantly lower than the WP system, especially in the 2016–17 growing season at Balm because a significant portion of bare-root transplants died due to Phytophthora root rot at this location. At Balm, production cost was calculated based on a 2-year average whereas yield was calculated based on the 2017–18 growing season only. Our results are consistent with previous reports. Hochmuth et al. (2006) found that strawberry plug transplants facilitated earlier flowering than bare-root transplants, which required a longer time to flower. Thus, plug transplants may have the potential to provide a greater early yield of strawberry fruit and thus more profit to the producer. Mohamed (2000) reported that early yield was increased by plug transplants compared with bare-root transplants in Egypt. Consistency in early fruit production will be critical for the WP system to be economically viable.
Effect of white-on-black plastic mulch and plug transplants with no sprinkler irrigation (WP system) and black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants established with 12 d of sprinkler irrigation (BB system) on early and total yield of strawberry at Citra and Balm, FL, USA (2016–17 and 2017–18).
Economic evaluation
Irrigation water use at both locations was lower with the WP system than the BB system even though transplanting in the WP occurred earlier (Table 2). This is because no overhead irrigation was used to establish the WP system. One-third of the water used in a strawberry production season is used during plant establishment, and this suggests that, with the WP system, the pumping cost would be reduced by one-third. This cost ($364/acre at Citra and $428/acre at Balm) represents ∼7.2% and ∼8.4% of the total operating costs for strawberry production at Citra and Balm, respectively. The savings accrued from reductions in pumping, operating, maintenance, and repair costs with the WP system would influence a small portion of the overall strawberry production costs. However, if farmers ever need to pay for all or a portion of their irrigation water, then the economic savings in production costs with the WP system could be significant. Due to the current concerns of the public about environmental issues, it would also benefit growers from a sustainability standpoint to have higher production per gallon of water used.
Irrigation water use for strawberry production at Citra and Balm, FL, USA, averaged over two seasons (2016–17 and 2017–18).
The use of the WP system increased the number of input costs for the strawberry grower because plug transplants are about twice the cost of bare-root transplants, and the white-on-black mulch also costs more than black plastic mulch. Using the 2017 bare-root transplant prices of $147 per 1000 plants and plug prices of $359 per >10,000–24,999 plants, the cost of transplants rises from $2646/acre with bare-root transplants to $6462/acre with plugs. The mulch cost increased from $360/acre with the BB system to $440/acre with the WP system, but the costs of pumping water, transplanting, and disease and pest control equipment and materials decreased. There is a reduction in irrigation variable costs associated with using the WP system compared with the BB system. The WP system does not require extra water from an overhead sprinkler system. The decrease in irrigation operating costs is a natural result of not having to pay for supplies, repairs, maintenance, and energy costs for operating a pump for an overhead sprinkler system distributing 16.2 inches/acre at Citra and 19.2 inches/acre at Balm to maintain a cool environment for 96 h during the 12-d establishment period. The overall cost increase with the WP system is $6734/acre (early cost) and $14,304/acre (total cost), and $5067/acre (early cost) and $11,262/acre (total cost) at Citra and Balm, respectively, including savings in machinery cost due to conservative irrigation needs, labor, disease, and pest control (Tables 3 and 4). Savings are indicated as negative values on Tables 3 and 4. Total savings that would accrue due to adopting the WP systems were $364/acre at Citra and $428/acre at Balm.
Cost comparison between strawberry production using black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants established with 12 d of sprinkler irrigation (BB system) and white-on-black mulch and plug transplants with no sprinkler irrigation (WP system) for Citra, FL, USA, averaged over two seasons (2016–17 and 2017–18).
Cost comparison between strawberry production using black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants established with 12 d of sprinkler irrigation (BB system) and white-on-black mulch and plug transplants with no sprinkler irrigation (WP system) for Balm, FL, USA, averaged over two seasons (2016–17 and 2017–18).
There must be a revenue reward in addition to water conservation for the WP system to be cost-effective for current strawberry growers. That revenue reward is provided by price premiums from earlier strawberry yield as well as yield increases over the season. Earlier strawberry fruit production occurred with the WP system in both locations. The average early yield (up to December) was increased by 683 flats/acre at Citra and 346 flats/acres at Balm for the WP system over the sprinkler-irrigated BB system (Table 5). Early strawberries in Florida typically command prices of $11.08 to $23.50 per flat, compared with $8.59 to $13.20 per flat for late strawberries, estimated from 2014–18 weekly weighted average prices (USDA, AMS 2020). The increase in yield with the WP system would pay for the amplified input costs compared with the BB system. For instance, the additional cost for using the WP system amounts to $6734/acre (early cost) and $14,304/acre (total cost) at Citra and $5067/acre (early cost) and $11,262/acre (total cost) at Balm (Tables 3 and 4), while the additional sales for the increase in early yield at Citra at $11.08 to $23.50 per flat would be $12,184/acre (early) and $28,961/acre (total) and at Balm would be $7142/acre (early) and $25,027/acre (total) (Table 5), which all exceed the additional costs. This means that use of the WP system would bring extra profit. Because of increased sales from extra yield generated by the new system, the expected net effect (change in net return per acre) from using the WP system is $5450/acre (early) and $14,657/acre (total) at Citra and at Balm would be $2075/acre (early) and $13,765/acre (total) under this specific set of assumptions.
Net effect of using white-on-black mulch and plug transplants with no sprinkler irrigation (WP system) relative to black plastic mulch and bare-root transplants established with 12 d of sprinkler irrigation (BB system) for strawberry production at Citra and Balm, FL, USA, averaged over two seasons (2016–17 and 2017–18).
Our findings agreed with Hochmuth et al. (2006). Their partial budget analysis indicated that although plug transplant costs were higher by $1853/acre, higher earlier yield offset the higher cost of production. Profit was higher by $1142/acre with plugs than with bare-root transplants in 1 year of the 2-year study. The savings in water used in the establishment of the WP system is an additional important benefit. Establishing strawberry transplants with less water would be particularly important in potential future conditions where farmers are required to cut farm water consumption. A new mulch design, black plastic mulch with a white stripe that covers most of the strawberry bed except for the shoulders, was reported to have increased total season yield, fruit size and reduced disease incidence of strawberries compared with black mulch (Deschamps et al. 2019). This may be an option that provides a cooler microenvironment for early season plug transplant establishment in September while exposed black shoulders after canopy closure during the cooler winter period (December through February) offers soil warming to enhance yields.
Further efficiencies could be gained by reducing the cost of labor for transplanting. Labor, at 40% of total production cost, is the largest cost for the Florida strawberry industry (Biswas et al. 2018). The cost and constraints of obtaining adequate labor to pick the strawberry crop have resulted in the development of a fully autonomous, robotic strawberry harvester (Harvest CROO Robotics 2022). The acceptance of mechanical harvesting will likely promote acceptance of mechanization of other aspects of Florida strawberry production. Plug transplanters are commonly used in commercial vegetable production in Florida and could be readily used for strawberry transplanting. Plug transplant availability from nurseries of strawberry cultivars used in Florida is increasing, and plug transplants are usually available earlier than fresh-dug, bare-root transplants. These factors could encourage the use of plug transplanters in Florida strawberry production. The resulting decreased labor costs for transplanting could contribute to enhancing the economic sustainability of plug transplant use in addition to improving strawberry water use efficiency in Florida.
Conclusions
The WP system, a combination of white-on-black mulch plus strawberry plug transplants, can provide earlier fruit yield than the standard system with bare-root transplants and black plastic mulch. Total yield also was higher in the WP system than in the BB system at both locations and in both seasons (2016–17 and 2017–18). The total profitability of strawberry production was higher by $14,657/acre at Citra and $13,765/acre at Balm with the WP system than the BB system. Our results show that the WP system has the potential for improved revenues on strawberry farms in Florida. The WP system did not require sprinkler irrigation for crop establishment, resulting in substantial savings in water and related irrigation costs. Production practices that conserve water will be critical for environmentally sustainable strawberry production in Florida. More research is needed to establish whether the WP system will consistently result in higher early fruit yields with Florida cultivars other than ‘Florida Radiance’.
References cited
Albregts EE, Howard CM. 1985. Effect of intermittent sprinkler irrigation on establishment of strawberry transplants. Proc Soil Crop Sci Soc Fla. 44:197–199.
Alimi T, Alofe CO. 1992. Profitability response of improved open pollinated maize varieties to nitrogen fertilizer levels. J Agric Rural Develop. 5:42–47.
Biswas T, Wu F, Guan Z. 2018. Labor shortages in the Florida strawberry industry. Univ Florida Inst Food Agric Sci EDIS. FE1041. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fe1041-2018.
Bish EB, Cantliffe DJ, Chandler CK. 2001. A system of producing large quantities of greenhouse-grown strawberry plantlets for plug production. HortTechnology. 11:636–638. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.11.4.636.
Bish EB, Cantliffe DJ, Chandler CK. 2002. Temperature conditioning and container size affect early season fruit yield of strawberry plug plants in a winter, an annual hill production system. HortScience. 37:762–764. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.37.5.762.
Bolda MP, Tourte L, Murdock J, Sumner DA. 2016. Sample costs to produce and harvest strawberries. https://coststudyfiles.ucdavis.edu/uploads/pub/2022/01/04/strawberrycentralcoastfinaldraft-121321.pdf. [accessed 22 Jun 2023].
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2016. State occupational employment and wage estimates Florida. https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_fl.htm. [accessed 12 Dec 2022].
Cornelisse S, Hyde J. 2017. Partial budgeting for agricultural business. https://extension.psu.edu/partial-budgeting-for-agricultural-businesses. [accessed 12 May 2023].
Dash PK, Chase CA, Agehara S, Zotarelli L. 2020. Heat stress mitigation effects of kaolin and s-abscisic acid during the establishment of strawberry plug transplants. Scientia Hortic. 267:109276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109276.
Dash PK, Chase CA, Agehara S, Zotarelli L. 2022. Alleviating heat stress during early-season establishment of containerized strawberry transplants. J Berry Res. 12:19–40. https://doi.org/10.3233/jbr-210702.
Deschamps SS, Whitaker VM, Agehara S. 2019. White-striped plastic mulch reduces root-zone temperatures during establishment and increases early season yields of annual winter strawberry. Scientia Hortic. 243:602–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2018.09.018.
Durner EF. 1999. Winter greenhouse strawberry production using conditioned plug plants. HortScience. 34:615–616. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.34.4.615.
Durner EF, Poling EB, Maas JL. 2002. Recent advances in strawberry plug transplant technology. HortTechnology. 12:545–550. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.12.4.545.
El-Deep Soha M. 2014. The partial budget analysis for sorghum farm in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Ann Agric Sci. 59:77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2014.06.011.
Grout BWW, Millam S. 1985. Photosynthetic development of micropropagated strawberry plantlets following transplanting. Ann Bot. 55:129–131. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086872.
Guan Z, Wu F, Whidden A. 2017. Florida strawberry production costs and trends. Univ Florida. Inst Food Agric Sci EDIS. FE1013. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fe1013-2017.
Harvest CROO Robotics. 2022. Harvest CROO Robotics. https://www.harvestcroorobotics.com/. [accessed 22 Jun 2023].
Hochmuth G, Cantliffe D, Chandler C, Stanley C, Bish E, Waldo E, Legard D, Duval J. 2006. Fruiting responses and economics of containerized and bare-root strawberry transplants established with different irrigation methods. HortTechnology. 16:205–210. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.16.2.0205.
Hochmuth RC, Davis LL, Crocker T, Dinkins D, Hochmuth G. 1998. Comparison of bare-root and plug strawberry plants in soilless culture in north Florida. Florida Coop Ext Serv Rpt. SVREC 98-04. https://svaec.ifas.ufl.edu/media/svaecifasufledu/docs/pdf/svreports/crops/strawberry/98-04.pdf. [accessed 12 May 2023].
Mohamed FH. 2000. Current and future uses of micro propagated strawberry plug transplants in Egypt. Acta Hortic. 513:389–392. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.1998.513.46.
Poling EB. 1993. Strawberry plasticulture in North Carolina: II. Preplant, planting, and postplant considerations for growing ‘Chandler’ strawberry on black plastic mulch. HortTechnology. 3:383–393. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.3.4.383.
Poling EB, Maas JL. 2000. Strawberry plug transplant technology. Acta Hortic. 513:393–401. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.1998.513.47.
Santos BM, Peres NA, Price JF, Whitaker VM, Dittmar PJ, Olson SM, Smith SA. 2013. Strawberry production in Florida, p 281–291. In: Olson SM, Santos BM (eds). Vegetable production handbook for Florida 2012–2013. Univ Florida, Inst Food Agric Sci, Gainesville, FL, USA.
Santos BM, Salame-Donoso TP, Whidden AJ. 2012. Reducing sprinkler irrigation volumes for strawberry transplant establishment in Florida. HortTechnology. 22:224–227. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.22.2.224.
Tigner R. 2018. Partial budgeting: Making incremental farm business changes. https://agecon.unl.edu/cornhusker-economics/2018/partial-budgeting. [accessed 12 May 2023].
US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. 2006. Strawberries grades and standards. https://www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/strawberries-grades-and-standards. [accessed 12 May 2023].
US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Services. 2020. Specialty crops. Market news. Report results. Commodity: Strawberries. https://www.marketnews.usda.gov/mnp/fv-report-top-filters?locName=&commAbr=STRBY&commName=STRAWBERRIES&className=FRUITS&rowDisplayMax=25&startIndex=1&navClass=FRUITS&navType=byComm&repType=termPriceDaily&type=termPrice. [accessed 20 Jun 2020].
US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2013a. Official soil series descriptions. https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/M/MYAKKA.html. [accessed 12 May 2023].
US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2013b. Official soil series descriptions. https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/C/CANDLER.html. [accessed 12 May 2023].
Wu F, Guan Z, Garcia-Nazariega M. 2018. Comparison of labor costs between Florida and Mexican strawberry industries. Univ Florida. Inst Food Agric Sci EDIS FE. 1023. https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fe1023-2017.
Wu F, Guan Z, Whitaker V. 2015. Optimizing yield distribution under biological and economic constraints: Florida strawberries as a model for perishable commodities. Agric Syst. 141:113–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2015.10.002.
