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Violets (Viola) are potential candidates for aroma-focused breeding research. Though most Viola species and modern hybrids lack fragrance, the genus contains a famously scented species, Viola odorata L. This species and its cultivars are genetic resources of aroma traits that could be used to investigate the selection for and transmission of fragrance during the breeding process. Despite its famous scent, however, the floral volatile emissions of V. odorata have not been characterized using modern headspace techniques. Using static and dynamic headspace volatile collection methods and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, the floral volatile emissions of V. odorata were temporally and developmentally characterized. Floral volatiles were also sampled from 10 V. odorata cultivars, three Parma violet cultivars, five violet species, and one hybrid, and variation in scent among these violets was investigated. Total volatile emissions in V. odorata were highest from 0600 HR to 1900 HR, suggesting a diurnal pattern of emission. Volatile emissions also varied over the developmental lifespan of the flower, with the highest emission of individual and total volatiles occurring, in general, from stages 0 or +1 to stages +3 or +4. Floral scent qualitatively and quantitatively differed among assorted violets. The floral volatile emissions of V. odorata exhibit temporal and developmental variation. Compared with the other violet species in this study, sweet violets are intensely fragrant. The quantity and quality of floral scent differs among V. odorata cultivars, providing genetic variation from which selections could be made in a fragrance-focused breeding program.

Open Access
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Temporal separation of red (R) and blue (B) (alternating R/B) photons has been reported to increase leaf area, photon capture, and yield of lettuce compared with delivering both colors together (concurrent R+B). We grew three diverse lettuce cultivars (Grand Rapids, Rex, and Red Sails) under concurrent R+B photons (9/1 ratio) and alternating R/B photons (9/1 ratio) under an equal daily light integral (DLI) of either 8.6 or 23 mol⋅m−2⋅d−1. Contrary to five previous studies, we found no increase in either leaf area or fresh mass and dry mass in any of the alternating R/B photon treatments compared with concurrent R+B photons. In fact, at a DLI at 8.6 mol⋅m−2⋅d−1, alternating R/B photons decreased the dry mass of ‘Grand Rapids’ and ‘Rex’ lettuce by 38% and 17%, respectively. Two previous studies reported that photosynthetic rates increased with alternating R/B photons; however, we found that the net assimilation rate was generally decreased by alternating R/B photons. An analysis of images obtained from automated digital photography revealed that the relative expansion rate of leaves was 61% higher during intervals of pure B rather than intervals of pure R photons at the same photosynthetic photon flux density; however, this did not result in a higher leaf area compared with concurrent R+B photons. Overall, our studies do not indicate that alternating R/B photons increase lettuce leaf area or yield compared with concurrent R+B photons.

Open Access

Green care activities are associated with lower intensity and a lower risk of injury than agricultural activities aimed at producing agricultural and livestock products; however, the risk of health problems cannot be completely ruled out. To implement green care interventions to improve physical health, it is essential to identify the green care activity levels and biomechanical characteristics of the movements that are appropriate for each subject’s physical functions and goals. Thus, this study was conducted to determine the muscle activation of the upper and lower limbs during 19 green care farming activities. We used electromyography signals, which are biomedical signals that measure the action potentials generated in the muscles and nervous system when the muscles contract, to evaluate the muscle activation. Twenty adults (aged 29.9 ± 9.6 years) participated in this study. Participants performed 19 green care farming activities, including horticultural activity, animal-mediated, and off-farming activities. The participants performed each activity three times. The electromyography data were assessed using surface electromyography during activities to measure muscle activation. As a result, 16 upper and lower limb muscles were activated during the green care farming activities, which showed significantly different muscle activation by care farming activity. As a result of the comparison of muscle activity according to each muscle, many of the muscles of the upper and lower limbs were most activated during organizing a garden plot, transplanting plants, and collecting natural objects. In conclusion, the electromyography data obtained during this study suggest that green care farming interventions may be effective for training specific muscles of the upper and lower limbs.

Open Access

Citrus microcarpa is a popular nutritious fruit that is widely cultivated in China. In recent years, many compounds with significant pharmacological activities have been isolated successfully from the pericarp of C. microcarpa. However, to date, there are no reports on the activity of C. microcarpa pericarp against root-knot nematodes. This study used the ethanolic extract from the pericarp of Hainan C. microcarpa and the impregnation method to determine its activity on J2 Meloidogyne enterolobii specimens and on single-egg hatching. The results showed that when J2 individuals were treated with 50 mg⋅mL–1 of the extract, the lethal concentration 50 values after 24 and 48 hours were 17.124 and 8.858 mg⋅mL–1, respectively. The mortality rate of nematodes after 48 hours of treatment was 100%, and the inhibition rate of single-egg hatching after 24 hours was 89.29%. The ethanolic extract of C. microcarpa peels showed high inhibitory and lethal activity against the M. enterolobii. The analysis of the chemical composition of the extract revealed 28 substances with insecticidal and antibacterial effects, including lignans, flavonoids, fatty acids, organic acids, terpenoids, and imidazole. The formulas of the chemical structures and pharmacological effects of these potential insecticidal and antibacterial substances were elucidated to provide a scientific basis and a theoretical reference for the use of C. microcarpa pericarps as a raw material for the development of new, natural plant nematicides.

Open Access

Although there is increasing consumer interest in newer foods such as green seeds, green shell bean production in Virginia is nonexistent. We conducted replicated field studies during 2022–23 to characterize production potential of green shell beans and green seeds from black and navy beans. Average green pod and green seed yields were 10,121 and 5186 kg·ha−1, respectively, whereas average seed number per pod was 3.6. As a group, black beans had a higher shelling percent than navy beans, with an average shelling percent of 54%. Green seeds from black and navy bean contained 26% protein, 82 mg·kg−1 Fe, and 38 mg·kg−1 Zn in addition to appreciable concentrations of other nutrients. Our results indicated that black and navy beans have potential as alternative crops to supply green seeds.

Open Access

A large group of horticulture species are propagated vegetatively through shoot-tip cuttings harvested from stock plants and planted to form adventitious roots. Adventitious rooting leads to establishing a carbohydrate sink in the region of root regeneration that is highly dependent on energy and carbon skeletons. We hypothesized that the timing of exogenous applications of cytokinin (CK) and boron (B)–molybdenum (Mo)-based products during adventitious root development can affect the flow of sugars from leaves to sinks, carbon allocation to the adventitious roots, and the quality of rooted cuttings. During this project, we aimed to determine if the application time of a CK/B-Mo-based product during the adventitious root development of unrooted cuttings would impact the source-to-sink relationship and, hence, affect plug growth and quality. A sink-strengthening commercial product based on cytokinin, B, and Mo was applied at four plug development stages plus a negative control as follows: T1, plants without product (control); T2, sticking stage (starting 24 hours after the sticking); T3, callus formation stage; T4, root development stage; and T5, toning stage. The root and shoot lengths and dry matter, number of leaves, leaf chlorophyll content, root-to-shoot ratio (based on dry matter), and nonstructural carbohydrate contents were measured. The timing of the application of the product impacted the root development, quality of the cuttings, and nonstructural carbohydrate content. Product application during the adventitious root dedifferentiation and induction phases (T2) resulted in the shortest root and shoot lengths, lowest dry matter accumulation, lowest nonstructural carbohydrate contents, and some phytotoxicity. Application during the initiation phase (T3) resulted in greater root length, total dry matter, and total soluble sugar contents compared with the control. Application during the expression phase (T4) resulted in the largest root length and mass and the highest sucrose contents. Applying the product when the roots had grown and reached all the edges of the growing media (T5) did not have any benefits compared with the control. This study provides new insights into the application timing of exogenous CKs, B, and Mo to generate a well-toned rooted coleus cutting and potential explanations in relation to nonstructural carbohydrate metabolism.

Open Access